- Volume 66, Issue 8, 2017

Purpose. Acinetobacter baumannii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa provoke serious infections, especially in intensive care unit (ICU) patients.

Methodology. The risk factors and predictors of mortality for P. aeruginosa (n=84; 46 carbapenem-resistant) and A. baumannii (n=129; all carbapenem-resistant) bloodstream infections (BSIs) in an ICU were evaluated. Antibiotic susceptibility testing was performed using the agar disk diffusion method according to EUCAST guidelines. The minimum inhibitory concentration was determined by a gradient method (Etest). Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) was performed for P. aeruginosa during the carbapenem-resistant outbreak in 2014. Epidemiological data were collected from the patients’ chart reviews.

Results/Key findings. Hospitalization during the summer months, prior KPC-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae (KPC-Kp) BSI, and the administration of tigecycline, aminoglycosides and cortisone were independently associated with P. aeruginosa BSIs. MLST revealed the dissemination of clone ST227, including carbapenem-resistant P. aeruginosa strains. Hospitalization during the summer months, prior KPC-Kp BSI, and the administration of antibiotics, carbapenem and cortisone were independently associated with A. baumannii BSIs. The 30-day mortality rate for P. aeruginosa and A. baumannii BSI was 45.2 and 39.5 %, respectively. Sequential organ failure assessment (SOFA) score at onset, septic shock, age, and prior KPC-Kp BSI were significantly associated with P. aeruginosa BSI mortality. The administration of at least one active antibiotic was identified as a predictor of a good prognosis. Septic shock and simplified acute physiology score (SAPS) II at onset were independently associated with A. baumannii BSI mortality. The administration of at least one active antibiotic and colistin–vancomycin co-administration were identified as predictors of a good prognosis.

Conclusion. KPC-Kp infection predisposes ICU patients to BSI by either A. baumannii or P. aeruginosa. The administration of at least one active antibiotic leads to better survival rates.

Purpose. Stenotrophomonas maltophilia is a multidrug-resistant opportunistic pathogen causing an increasing number of nosocomial infections. Our aim was to evaluate the risk factors and mechanisms associated with trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole (SXT) resistance in S. maltophilia infections in Mexico.

Methodology. Clinical isolates and patients' demographic and clinical data were collected from February 2007 to August 2015 in two tertiary-care hospitals in Mexico. Antimicrobial susceptibility and analysis of sul and SmeABC and SmeDEF efflux pump overexpression were performed in all isolates.

Results/Key findings. In the 9-year period, 196 patients infected with S. maltophilia were identified. Most patients were male, and the mean age was 46.2 years. The mean Charlson score was 1.42, and the most frequent comorbidities were arterial hypertension (26.7 %), type 2 diabetes (21.2 %) and cerebral infarction (11.6 %). High drug resistance to meropenem (93.4 %), gentamicin (55.1 %), ceftazidime (52.3 %), cefotaxime (51.5 %), amikacin (42.3 %) and cefepime (32.1 %), and lower resistance to ciprofloxacin (26.0 %), SXT (25.0 %), chloramphenicol (14.3 %) and levofloxacin (2.6 %) were detected. SXT resistance was not associated with the sul genes. SmeABC overexpression was associated with gentamicin (P=0.001) and levofloxacin resistance (P=0.041), whereas SmeDEF overexpression was associated with ceftazidime resistance (P=0.003). Prolonged hospitalization (≥15 days) was an independent risk factor for SXT-resistant S. maltophilia infections (OR=3.05; 95 % CI=1.12–8.86; P=0.029).

Conclusion. Given the high SXT resistance rate, SXT is not an effective first-line therapy for our patients; instead, levofloxacin could be used as an appropriate therapeutic option against S. maltophilia infections.

Purpose. A new automated Cobas u 701 microscopy analyser for urine sediment examination was introduced. The aim of this study was to evaluate the analyser in comparison with urine culture in screening for urinary tract infection (UTI).

Methodology. A total of 852 urine specimens submitted for culture were included in this study. Urine sediment examination was performed using the Cobas u 701 microscopy analyser. The results of the bacteria (BAC) and yeast (YEA) analyses were compared with the results from urine culture as a method for UTI screening. In addition, we compared the BAC results with white blood cells (WBCs) and leukocyte and nitrite measurement in the Cobas u 601 system.

Results. Of the 852 urine specimens, 16.1 % (N=137) were positive by urine culture, yielding 130 bacteria from 124 specimens and 14 yeasts from 14 specimens. The Cobas u 701 microscopy analyser provided no result for 52 specimens because of their high turbidity. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value were 85.8, 69.4, 33.1 and 96.5 %, respectively. For YEA, these figures were 100, 91.9, 15.8 and 100 %, respectively. The areas under the curve for BAC and WBCs were 0.827 [95 % confidence interval (CI) 0.799, 0.852] and 0.727 (95 % CI 0.695, 0.757), respectively. The sensitivity of the leukocyte and nitrite was 63.5 and 54.6 %, respectively.

Conclusion. The Cobas u 701 microscopy analyser showed good diagnostic performance. It can be used for rapid screening for UTI and can reduce the number of cultures required.

Purpose. To determine the seroprevalence of specific IgM indicative of respiratory tract infection (RTI) due to Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) among symptomatic infants.

Methodology. A descriptive study was conducted on young infants up to 5 months old at the Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Infections Reference Laboratory, National Centre for Epidemiology, Budapest, covering the period 2008–2016. Serum samples from infants suffering from RTIs were screened with a micro-immunofluorescence test (Focus, Cypress, USA) for the presence of anti-Chlamydia trachomatis-specific IgM. A parallel Bordetella pertussis screening was performed by an indirect immunofluorescence test (Euroimmun, Lübeck, Germany) that detected specific IgM.

Results.The CT-specific serum IgM was highly reactive in 50 (19.1 %) of the 262 neonates with RTIs, while all proved negative for Bordetella pertussis-specific IgM.

Conclusion. Vertically transmitted C. trachomatis must be regarded as a common pathogen among symptomatic neonates with RTIs in Hungary. Routine screening and treatment of pregnant women could be one option to help prevent these conditions. Focused laboratory testing based on raised clinical awareness should enable early diagnosis and appropriate therapy for symptomatic infants.

Purpose. Conventional laboratory detection methods for gastrointestinal parasites are time consuming, require considerable technical expertise and may suffer from poor analytical sensitivity. This study sought to evaluate the automated BD MAX Enteric Parasite Panel (EPP) for the detection of Cryptosporidium parvum/hominis, Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia duodenalis.

Methodolgy. A total of 104 known positive samples (43 Cryptosporidium parvum/hominis and 61 G . duodenalis), 15 simulated samples (E. histolytica and other Entamoeba species) and 745 patient stool samples, submitted for enteric pathogen culture and microscopy, were inoculated into BD MAX EPP sample buffer tubes (SBTs). All specimens were blinded and tested within 7 days of SBT inoculation using the BD MAX EPP assay with results compared to those generated by microscopy.

Results/Key findings. Combining the results from the known positive samples and anonymously tested patient samples, the sensitivity of the BD MAX EPP assay was 100 % for both Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis. Specificities of 99.7 and 98.9 % were calculated for the detection of Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis respectively. Insufficient clinical specimen data was available to determine the performance of the assay for E. histolytica detection.

Conclusions. The findings of this study indicate that the BD MAX EPP is suitable for the detection of Cryptosporidium parvum/hominis and G. duodenalis from clinical specimens with reduced hands-on time and complexity compared to microscopy. Results for the detection of E. histolytica were promising although further work is required to evaluate the assay for the detection of this pathogen.

Purpose. We aimed to evaluate a PCR-based technique for the diagnosis of mucormycosis and the identification of fungi from fresh tissue specimens in patients with rhino-orbito-cerebral-mucormycosis (ROCM).

Methodology. Fifty cases of ROCM were included in the study. Conventional identification was performed using microscopy and culture. Molecular diagnosis was performed by amplifying the ribosomal DNA using pan-fungal ITS primers and semi-nested Mucorales-specific primers of the 18S region. The amplified products were sequenced to identify the agents. The utility of PCR–RFLP of the 18S region of rDNA was evaluated to identify the Mucorales.

Results. The ROCM cases were diagnosed by the demonstration of aseptate ribbon-like hyphae in biopsy specimens collected from the patients. Isolation was possible in 24 (48 %) samples. The ITS2 PCR confirmed mucormycosis in 27 cases (54 %; CI 59.4–68.2). By comparison, Mucorales-specific PCR was able to amplify DNA and the sequence enabled the identification of Mucorales speciesin all the patients. PCR-RFLP of the 18S region of rDNA could only identify the agent to genus level.

Conclusion. The molecular technique was able to identify Mucorales species in 26 (42 %) cases that were negative by culture. Mucorales-specific semi-nested PCR targeting the 18S region is a better technique than ITS2 PCR for diagnosis. PCR-RFLP of the 18S region helps in identification to genus level.

Purpose. We evaluated the Sekure rapid plasma reagin (RPR-S) (Sekisui Diagnostics) automated quantitative latex immunoturbidimetric assay performed on the SK500 clinical chemistry system for clinical appropriateness.

Methodology. Syphilis-infected individuals and controls were recruited into a prospective cohort study conducted at a sexually transmitted infection clinic in Antwerp, Belgium. Sera collected at diagnosis (baseline) and at 3, 6, 9 and 12 months post-treatment were tested with RPR-S and Macro-Vue RPR card (RPR-C) (Becton Dickinson) assays; RPR-C was considered the reference test. IgG/IgM enzyme immunoassay and Treponema pallidum polA serum PCR results were consulted by discordancy at baseline. Categorical analyses were performed and correlations were assessed with (non)-linear regression. Post-treatment longitudinal serological evolution was evaluated.

Results. A total of 463 samples from 120 new syphilis cases from a variety of clinical stages and 30 syphilis-negative controls were tested. Initially, there was a weak correlation between quantitative RPR-C/S (r=0.15). In 70 samples there was a strong suspicion of hook effect. Of these, 57/70 sera were retested with an extra dilution step, resulting in an average 12-fold increase in quantitative RPR-S results. After the extra dilution, the overall qualitative RPR-C/S agreement was 78.89 %, (κ–coefficient: 0.484). Of the 92 discordant samples, 9 were from the baseline visit (RPR-C titre: 1–8), which could have led to possible missed diagnoses using the RPR-S.

Conclusions. The sensitivity and accuracy of the RPR-S test requires improvement before it can be used to diagnose syphilis and evaluate treatment efficacy in clinical practice.

Bedaquiline (BDQ) has been proven to be effective in the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. We hypothesized that BDQ could be a potential agent to treat nontuberculous mycobacterial (NTM) infection. The objective of this study was to evaluate the in vitro activity of BDQ against rapidly growing mycobacteria by assessing the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) against 18 NTM strains. For MIC determination we performed the resazurin microtitre assay broth dilution, and for the MBC the c.f.u. was determined. BDQ exhibited a strong inhibitory effect against most NTM tested; however, for some NTM strains the MBC was significantly higher than the MIC. A new finding is that Mycobacterium flavescens has a mutation in the gene atpE associated with natural resistance to BDQ. These preliminary promising results demonstrate that BDQ could be potentially useful for the treatment of NTM.

Plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance (PMQR) determinants combined with mutations in quinolone resistance-determining regions (QRDRs) and clonal dissemination were investigated in 40 fluoroquinolone-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli isolates from nosocomial and community-acquired infections. We observed nucleotide substitutions in gyrA (Ser83Ile, Val37Leu, Lys154Arg, Ser171Ala, Ser19Asn, Ile198Val, Ser83Tyr, Ser83Leu, Asp87Asn and Asp87Gly) and parC genes (Ser80Ile, Glu84Lys, Ala129Ser, Val141Ala and Glu84Gly). Two novel substitutions were detected in the gyrA gene (Val37Leu and Ile198Val). The presence of PMQR genes predominated in community isolates (55.5 %). In addition to the frequent presence of the class 1 integron in isolates from community-acquired infections, the genetic similarity results obtained by PFGE showed high genomic diversity. This study suggests that management of multidrug-resistant Enterobacteriaceae isolates from the community are a possible source of genetic mobile elements that carry genes that confer resistance to fluoroquinolones. More attention should be paid to the surveillance of community-acquired infections.

Purpose. Solid-organ transplant recipients may display high rates of colonization and/or infection by multidrug-resistant bacteria. We analysed and compared the phenotypic and genotypic diversity of carbapenem-resistant (CR) strains of Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii isolated from patients in the Solid Organ Transplantation department of our hospital.

Methodology. Between March 2012 and August 2013, 56 CR strains from various biological fluids underwent antimicrobial susceptibility testing with VITEK 2, molecular analysis by PCR amplification and genotypic analysis with pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). They were clustered according to antimicrobial drug susceptibility and genotypic profiles. Diversity analyses were performed by calculating Simpson’s diversity index and applying computed rarefaction curves.

Results/Key findings. Among K. pneumoniae, KP-producers predominated (57.1 %). VIM and OXA-23 carbapenemases prevailed among P. aeruginosa and A. baumannii (89.4 and 88.9 %, respectively). KPC-producing K. pneumoniae and OXA-23 A. baumannii were assigned in single PFGE pulsotypes. VIM-producing P. aeruginosa generated multiple pulsotypes. CR K. pneumoniae strains displayed phenotypic diversity in tigecycline, colistin (CS), amikacin (AMK), gentamicin (GEN) and co-trimoxazole (SXT) (16 clusters); P. aeruginosa displayed phenotypic diversity in cefepime (FEP), ceftazidime, aztreonam, piperacillin, piperacillin–tazobactam, AMK, GEN and CS (9 clusters); and A. baumannii displayed phenotypic diversity in AMK, GEN, SXT, FEP, tobramycin and rifampicin (8 clusters). The Simpson diversity indices for the interpretative phenotype and PFGE analysis were 0.89 and 0.6, respectively, for K. pneumoniae strains (P<0.001); 0.77 and 0.6 for P. aeruginosa (P=0.22); and 0.86 and 0.19 for A. baumannii (P=0.004).

Conclusion. The presence of different antimicrobial susceptibility profiles does not preclude the possibility that two CR K. pneumoniae or A. baumannii isolates are clonally related.

Purpose. To colonize and cause infection in the host, pathogens must be well equipped to respond to and survive in several hostile conditions. TolC, an outer membrane channel component used by multidrug efflux pumps and type I secretion systems, is considered to be largely involved in bacterial physiology and virulence. In this study, we attempted to investigate the possible roles of TolC2, a homologue of TolC, in the pathogenesis of Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae.

Methodology. The cell viability was investigated under stress conditions (oxidative, thermal, acid and osmotic). Virulence was assessed by lethal intraperitoneal injection of mice. The underlying mechanisms of the attenuation were further explored by serum bactericidal, in vivo phagocytosis and organ burden assays.

Results/Key findings. The deletion of tolC2 caused increased sensitivity to oxidative, thermal and acid challenges, indicating a critical role of TolC2 in A. pleuropneumoniae survival under stress conditions. The intraperitoneal injection of mice showed that the ΔtolC2 mutant caused significantly decreased mortality, suggesting the involvement of TolC2 in the virulence of A. pleuropneumoniae. In the serum-killing assays, the ΔtolC2 mutant showed significantly reduced survival ability when exposed to fresh serum. By the in vivo phagocytosis assays, we found that the loss of tolC2 rendered the mutant susceptible to phagocytosis by macrophages. Finally, the organ burden assays revealed decreased colonization of ΔtolC2 in lungs, indicating a higher bacterial clearance rate in mice in the absence of TolC2.

Conclusion. Our findings demonstrate that TolC2 contributes to the virulence of A. pleuropneumoniae by helping survival and maximal colonization in the host.

Several adenoviruses are known to cause severe disease in veterinary species. Recent evidence suggests that canine adenovirus type 1 (CAV-1) persists in the tissues of healthy red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), which may be a source of infection for susceptible species. It was hypothesized that mustelids native to the UK, including pine martens (Martes martes) and Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra), may also be persistently infected with adenoviruses. Based on high-throughput sequencing and additional Sanger sequencing, a novel Aviadenovirus, tentatively named marten adenovirus type 1 (MAdV-1), was detected in pine marten tissues. The detection of an Aviadenovirus in mammalian tissue has not been reported previously. Two mastadenoviruses, tentatively designated marten adenovirus type 2 (MAdV-2) and lutrine adenovirus type 1 (LAdV-1), were also detected in tissues of pine martens and Eurasian otters, respectively. Apparently healthy free-ranging animals may be infected with uncharacterized adenoviruses with possible implications for translocation of wildlife.

Homeless individuals face an elevated risk of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection. Identifying the prevalence and risk factors for MRSA nasal colonization may reduce infection risk. A cross-sectional study was conducted at a health clinic for homeless persons in Boston, MA, USA (n=194). In-person interviews and nasal swab specimens were collected. MRSA isolates were genotyped using pulse-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and assessed for antibiotic susceptibility. The prevalence of MRSA nasal colonization was 8.3 %. Seventy-five percent of isolates reflected clonal similarity to USA300. USA100 (18.8 %) and USA500 (6.3 %) were also recovered. Resistance to erythromycin (81.3 %), levofloxacin (31.3 %) and clindamycin (23.1 %) was identified. Recent inpatient status, endocarditis, haemodialysis, heavy drinking, not showering daily and transience were positively associated with MRSA nasal colonization. Carriage of community-acquired MRSA strains predominated in this population, although nosocomial strains co-circulate. Attention to behavioural and hygiene-related risk factors, not typically included in MRSA prevention efforts, may reduce risk.

Extra-corporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is a promising life-saving technique for critically ill patients. Bacterial infection is a frequent complication, and Escherichia coli the predominant causative pathogen, but little is known about the characteristics of E. coli strains in these infections. We therefore conducted a retrospective study of 33 E. coli strains responsible for 33 ECMO-related infections, in 30 subjects. Antimicrobial susceptibility, phylotyping, O-typing, clonal relatedness determination and the screening for four virulence factor genes were conducted. Polymicrobial infections were evidenced in 61.6 % of episodes, irrespective of E. coli characteristics. Extra-intestinal pathogenic strains represented the large majority (69.7 %) of all E. coli isolates. Their advantageous genetic background may explain their predominance in this context. The potential for targeted digestive decontamination should be investigated in these patients for whom infectious complications are a heavy burden.

Stenotrophomonas maltophilia is capable of surviving in a wide variety of environments and is considered to be among the antimicrobial-resistant bacteria of greatest public health concern in hospital settings. To clarify the role of houseflies (Musca domestica) in disseminating this bacterium, we collected 99 individuals from 15 locations (9 farms and 6 urban areas) in Thailand. S. maltophilia was isolated from 39 % (39/99) of these houseflies, with the isolation rates being similar in farms and urban areas. Multiple-antimicrobial resistance was evident among the S. maltophilia isolates obtained. Of note, the rate of resistance to trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX), the recommended first-line antimicrobial for S. maltophilia infection, was relatively high (30 %). Almost all of the isolates had a different PFGE pattern. These results suggest that houseflies ingest and host S. maltophilia from several different environmental sources. In conclusion, houseflies may facilitate the spread of antimicrobial-resistant (including TMP/SMX-resistant) S. maltophilia from environmental sources to humans.

Purpose. Cervicovaginal Atopobium vaginae and Gardnerella vaginalis are strongly associated with bacterial vaginosis (BV) and are the main components of vaginal biofilms. The low efficacy of BV treatment with metronidazole may be due to the presence of such biofilms. Thus, the aim of this study was to compare the pretreatment cervicovaginal loads of A. vaginae and G. vaginalis for women who restored normal flora and those who persisted with BV after a full course of oral metronidazole.

Methodology. In this cross-sectional study, 309 reproductive-aged women were recruited in a primary health care service in Botucatu, Brazil. Cervicovaginal samples were tested for genital tract infections, microscopic classification of local microbiota and molecular quantification of A. vaginae and G. vaginalis.

Results. All the participants with concurrent cervicovaginal infections (n=64) were excluded. A total of 84 out of 245 (34.3 %) women had BV at enrolment and 43 (51.2 %) of them completed the treatment and returned for follow-up. Evaluation of the vaginal microbiota at follow-up showed that 29 (67.4 %) women restored normal vaginal flora, while 14 (32.6 %) still had BV. The pretreatment loads of G. vaginalis were lower in women with treatment failure (P=0.001) compared to those who successfully restored normal flora. The loads of A. vaginae did not differ between the groups.

Conclusion. Although G. vaginalis produces several virulence factors and its loads correlate positively with those of A. vaginae, higher cervicovaginal quantities of these bacteria are not associated with treatment failure of BV after oral metronidazole.

The present study aimed to characterize cell damage caused by vaginal Candida albicans isolates from women with different symptomatologies. It was evaluated 12 clinical isolates of C. albicans from vaginal samples: 4 from asymptomatic women (AS), 4 from women with a single episode of vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) and 4 from women with recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis (RVVC). We evaluated the ability of C. albicans to adhere to human cervical cancer cells (SiHa), the yeast–SiHa cell interactions and cell damage. All of the clinical isolates presented a high adhesion capacity on SiHa cells. However, clinical isolates from symptomatic women (VVC and RVVC) had higher filamentation after contact (24 h) with SiHa cells and a greater capacity to cause cell damage (>80 %). Clinical isolates from symptomatic women had greater potential to invade SiHa cells, suggesting that they are more pathogenic than AS isolates.

Purpose. Typhoid fever caused by Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi has contributed to the global public health burden, particularly in developing countries. In this study, an S. Typhi ghost was developed and its capacity as a vaccine candidate against typhoid fever was assessed.

Methodology. An asd + plasmid pJHL187 harbouring a ghost cassette comprising the PhiX 174 Elysis gene tightly controlled under the convergent promotor system was transformed into an asd gene-deleted mutant S.Typhi strain (STG). The eltB gene encoding the E. coli heat-labile enterotoxin (LTB) protein was subcloned into a foreign antigen delivery cassette of pJHL187 to increase mucosal immunity.

Results. The stringent repression and expression of the lethal E lysis gene in the system allowed stable production of the ghost strain and secretion of LTB, which was confirmed by immune blot analysis. The level of IgG and sIgA was significantly increased in the mice subcutaneously immunized with STG-LTB compared to the non-immunized mice (P<0.05). The CD3+CD4+ T cell subpopulation was augmented in the immunized group (P<0.05) and showed the increment of immunomodulatory cytokines IL-2, IL-6, IL-12, IL-17 and IFN-γ in in vitro restimulated splenocytes isolated from the inoculated mice. The serum bactericidal activity of antibodies generated in the rabbits injected with STG-LTB was proved by the elimination of approximately 87.5 % of wild-type S. Typhi in the presence of exogenous complement.

Conclusion. The results demonstrated that the STG-LTB ghost effectively enhanced the immunological responses, meaning that STG-LTB is potentially available as a vaccine candidate against typhoid fever.

Purpose. We assessed the effects of four different types of tea extracts (green, oolong, black and pu-erh tea) on cellular surface properties (hydrophobicity and auto-aggregation) and the colonization attributes (attachment and biofilm formation) of four strains of Candida albicans and three strains of Candida krusei.

Methodology. The cellular surface properties were determined using spectrophotometry. The colonization activities were quantified using colorimetric viability assays and visualized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM).

Results. The tea extracts, in general, reduced the hydrophobicity (by 8–66 %) and auto-aggregation (by 20–65 %), and inhibited the attachment of two C. krusei strains (by 41–88 %). Tea extracts enhanced the biofilm formation of one C. albicans and two C. krusei strains (by 1.4–7.5-fold). The observed reduction in hydrophobicity strongly correlated with the reduction in attachment of the two C. krusei strains (P<0.05). The ultrastructural images of the tea-treated C. krusei biofilm cells demonstrated central indentations, although they remained viable.

Conclusion. The tea extracts have the ability to retard C. krusei adhesion to glass surfaces, possibly by reducing fungal cellular hydrophobicity, whilst paradoxically promoting biofilm formation. In practical terms, therefore, consumption of tea beverages appears to have a complex effect on oral candidal colonization.

Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae), otherwise known as ‘the pneumococcus’, is a fascinating microbe that continues to pose a significant problem to public health. Currently there are no specific National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) or British Thoracic Society (BTS) clinical guidelines referring to the treatment of invasive pneumococcal infection. NICE clinical guidelines suggest the use of lytic β-lactam antibiotic regimens for the management of community-acquired pneumonia and bacterial meningitis; infections for which S. pneumoniae is a likely causative organism. Lytic antibiotics have been shown to increase the release of pneumolysin (the highly inflammatory and damaging toxin of the pneumococcus), thus theoretically increasing host damage, which may lead to a decline of clinical outcomes in vulnerable patients. In light of this information, should the use of non-lytic antibiotics, such as quinolones, rifamycins and macrolides, be considered for the treatment of invasive pneumococcal disease?