The aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (APDT) using visible light together with water-filtered infrared-A (VIS+wIRA) to eradicate single species of planktonic bacteria and micro-organisms during initial oral bacterial colonization in situ. A broadband VIS+wIRA radiator with a water-filtered spectrum in the range 580–1400 nm was used for irradiation. Toluidine blue (TB) was utilized as a photosensitizer at concentrations of 5, 10, 25 and 50 µg ml−1. The unweighted (absolute) irradiance was 200 mW cm−2 and it was applied for 1 min. Planktonic cultures of Streptococcus mutans and Enterococcus faecalis were treated with APDT. Salivary bacteria harvested by centrifugation of native human saliva were also tested. In addition, initial bacterial colonization of bovine enamel slabs carried in the mouths of six healthy volunteers was treated in the same way. Up to 2 log10 of S. mutans and E. faecalis were killed by APDT. Salivary bacteria were eliminated to a higher extent of 3.7–5 log10. All TB concentrations tested proved to be highly effective. The killing rate of bacteria in the initial oral bacterial colonization was significant (P = 0.004) at all tested TB concentrations, despite the interindividual variations found among study participants. This study has shown that APDT in combination with TB and VIS+wIRA is a promising method for killing bacteria during initial oral colonization. Taking the healing effects of wIRA on human tissue into consideration, this technique could be helpful in the treatment of peri-implantitis and periodontitis.
Al-AhmadA.,
AuschillT. M.,
BraunG.,
HellwigE.,
ArweilerN. B.2006; Overestimation of Streptococcus mutans prevalence by nested PCR detection of the 16S rRNA gene. J Med Microbiol 55:109–113 [View Article][PubMed]
Al-AhmadA.,
Wiedmann-Al-AhmadM.,
AuschillT. M.,
FolloM.,
BraunG.,
HellwigE.,
ArweilerN. B.2008; Effects of commonly used food preservatives on biofilm formation of Streptococcus mutans in vitro
. Arch Oral Biol 53:765–772 [View Article][PubMed]
Al-AhmadA.,
FolloM.,
SelzerA. C.,
HellwigE.,
HannigM.,
HannigC.2009; Bacterial colonization of enamel in situ investigated using fluorescence in situ hybridization. J Med Microbiol 58:1359–1366 [View Article][PubMed]
Al-AhmadA.,
Wiedmann-Al-AhmadM.,
FaustJ.,
BächleM.,
FolloM.,
WolkewitzM.,
HannigC.,
HellwigE.,
CarvalhoC.,
KohalR.2010; Biofilm formation and composition on different implant materials in vivo
. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 95:101–109[PubMed][CrossRef]
BeightonD.,
RussellR. R. B.,
WhileyR. A.1991; A simple biochemical scheme for the differentiation of Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sobrinus
. Caries Res 25:174–178 [View Article][PubMed]
BevilacquaI. M.,
NicolauR. A.,
KhouriS.,
BrugneraA.Jr,
TeodoroG. R.,
ZângaroR. A.,
PachecoM. T. T.2007; The impact of photodynamic therapy on the viability of Streptococcus mutans in a planktonic culture. Photomed Laser Surg 25:513–518 [View Article][PubMed]
CostertonJ. W.,
StewartP. S.,
GreenbergE. P.1999; Bacterial biofilms: a common cause of persistent infections. Science 284:1318–1322 [View Article][PubMed]
DonnellyR. F.,
McCarronP. A.,
TunneyM. M.,
David WoolfsonA.2007; Potential of photodynamic therapy in treatment of fungal infections of the mouth. Design and characterisation of a mucoadhesive patch containing toluidine blue O. J Photochem Photobiol B 86:59–69 [View Article][PubMed]
FontanaC. R.,
AbernethyA. D.,
SomS.,
RuggieroK.,
DoucetteS.,
MarcantonioR. C.,
BoussiosC. I.,
KentR.,
GoodsonJ. M.other authors2009; The antibacterial effect of photodynamic therapy in dental plaque-derived biofilms. J Periodontal Res 44:751–759 [View Article][PubMed]
FuchsS. M.,
FluhrJ. W.,
BankovaL.,
TittelbachJ.,
HoffmannG.,
ElsnerP.2004; Photodynamic therapy (PDT) and waterfiltered infrared A (wIRA) in patients with recalcitrant common hand and foot warts. Ger Med Sci 2:Doc08[PubMed]
HartelM.,
HoffmannG.,
WenteM. N.,
MartignoniM. E.,
BüchlerM. W.,
FriessH.2006; Randomized clinical trial of the influence of local water-filtered infrared A irradiation on wound healing after abdominal surgery. Br J Surg 93:952–960 [View Article][PubMed]
KelleherD. K.,
BastianJ.,
ThewsO.,
VaupelP.2003; Enhanced effects of aminolaevulinic acid-based photodynamic therapy through local hyperthermia in rat tumours. Br J Cancer 89:405–411 [View Article][PubMed]
KömerikN.,
NakanishiH.,
MacRobertA. J.,
HendersonB.,
SpeightP.,
WilsonM.2003; In vivo killing of Porphyromonas gingivalis by toluidine blue-mediated photosensitization in an animal model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47:932–940 [View Article][PubMed]
MaischT.,
BaierJ.,
FranzB.,
MaierM.,
LandthalerM.,
SzeimiesR. M.,
BäumlerW.2007; The role of singlet oxygen and oxygen concentration in photodynamic inactivation of bacteria. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104:7223–7228 [View Article][PubMed]
NastriL.,
DonnarummaG.,
PorzioC.,
De GregorioV.,
TufanoM. A.,
CarusoF.,
MazzaC.,
SerpicoR.2010; Effects of toluidine blue-mediated photodynamic therapy on periopathogens and periodontal biofilm: in vitro evaluation. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 23:1125–1132[PubMed]
OmarG. S. M.2010Killing of organisms responsible for wound infections using a light-activated antimicrobial agent. Doctoral thesis, UCL (University College London). An open access version is available from UCL Discovery
OmarG. S. M.,
WilsonM.,
NairS. P.2008; Lethal photosensitization of wound-associated microbes using indocyanine green and near-infrared light. BMC Microbiol 8:111 [View Article][PubMed]
PiazenaH.,
KelleherD. K.2010; Effects of infrared-A irradiation on skin: discrepancies in published data highlight the need for an exact consideration of physical and photobiological laws and appropriate experimental settings. Photochem Photobiol 86:687–705 [View Article][PubMed]
RovaldiC. R.,
PievskyA.,
SoleN. A.,
FridenP. M.,
RothsteinD. M.,
SpacciapoliP.2000; Photoactive porphyrin derivative with broad-spectrum activity against oral pathogens in vitro. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 44:3364–3367 [View Article][PubMed]
SchneiderM.,
KirfelG.,
BertholdM.,
FrentzenM.,
KrauseF.,
BraunA.2012; The impact of antimicrobial photodynamic therapy in an artificial biofilm model. Lasers Med Sci 27:615–620 [View Article][PubMed]
Silva GarcezA.,
NúñezS. C.,
Lage-MarquesJ. L.,
JorgeA. O. C.,
RibeiroM. S.2006; Efficiency of NaOCl and laser-assisted photosensitization on the reduction of Enterococcus faecalis in vitro. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 102:e93–e98 [View Article]
SouzaL. C.,
BritoP. R.,
de OliveiraJ. C.,
AlvesF. R.,
MoreiraE. J.,
Sampaio-FilhoH. R.,
RôçasI. N.,
SiqueiraJ. F.Jr2010; Photodynamic therapy with two different photosensitizers as a supplement to instrumentation/irrigation procedures in promoting intracanal reduction of Enterococcus faecalis
. J Endod 36:292–296 [View Article][PubMed]
von FelbertV.,
HoffmannG.,
Hoff-LeschS.,
AbuzahraF.,
RennC. N.,
BraathenL. R.,
MerkH. F.2010; Photodynamic therapy of multiple actinic keratoses: reduced pain through use of visible light plus water-filtered infrared A compared with light from light-emitting diodes. Br J Dermatol 163:607–615 [View Article][PubMed]
WainwrightM.,
StanforthA.,
JonesR.,
LoughranC.,
MeeganK.2010; Photoantimicrobials as a potential local approach to geriatric UTIs. Lett Appl Microbiol 50:486–492 [View Article][PubMed]
WaldowS. M.,
HendersonB. W.,
DoughertyT. J.1985; Potentiation of photodynamic therapy by heat: effect of sequence and time interval between treatments in vivo. Lasers Surg Med 5:83–94 [View Article][PubMed]
WoodS.,
MetcalfD.,
DevineD.,
RobinsonC.2006; Erythrosine is a potential photosensitizer for the photodynamic therapy of oral plaque biofilms. J Antimicrob Chemother 57:680–684 [View Article][PubMed]
YanaseS.,
NomuraJ.,
MatsumuraY.,
NagataT.,
FujiiT.,
TagawaT.2006; Synergistic interaction of 5-aminolevulinic acid-based photodynamic therapy with simultaneous hyperthermia in an osteosarcoma tumor model. Int J Oncol 29:365–373[PubMed]
YooS.,
MurataR. M.,
DuarteS.2011; Antimicrobial traits of tea- and cranberry-derived polyphenols against Streptococcus mutans
. Caries Res 45:327–335 [View Article][PubMed]
ZaninI. C.,
LoboM. M.,
RodriguesL. K.,
PimentaL. A.,
HöflingJ. F.,
GonçalvesR. B.2006; Photosensitization of in vitro biofilms by toluidine blue O combined with a light-emitting diode. Eur J Oral Sci 114:64–69 [View Article][PubMed]
ZhuX.,
WangQ.,
ZhangC.,
CheungG. S.,
ShenY.2010; Prevalence, phenotype, and genotype of Enterococcus faecalis isolated from saliva and root canals in patients with persistent apical periodontitis. J Endod 36:1950–1955 [View Article][PubMed]