Skip to content
1887

Journal of Medical Microbiology logo Journal of Medical Microbiology

Volume 72, Issue 7

Hidden bugs in a newly opened hospital: the distribution of skin microbiota among healthcare workers in a newly opened teaching hospital No Access

Abstract

Skin is a reservoir for millions of micro-organisms, all of which make up the skin microbiota. Hospitals have been identified as a favourable environment for transmitting micro-organisms and thus, it is important to know the distribution of skin microbiota among healthcare workers (HCWs), as such findings may provide baseline information for the distribution of skin microbiota in hospitals.

. There is no significant association between the factors (age, gender, type of skin microenvironment, hand hygiene practices, usage of skin care products, current healthcare practices and previous workplace) and the distribution of the skin microbiota among HCWs.

. The study aims to identify type of skin microbiota and associated factors (age, gender, type of skin microenvironment, hand hygiene practices, use of skincare products, current healthcare practice, and previous workplace) that influence the growth of skin microbiota.

. About 102 bacterial isolates were obtained from the skin of 63 healthcare workers in a newly opened teaching hospital, namely Hospital Pengajar Universiti Putra Malaysia (HPUPM). All isolated bacteria were subjected to phenotypic identification according to standard microbiological procedures.

The most common isolated skin microbiota were Gram-positive bacteria (84.3%), followed by Gram-negative bacteria (15.7%). A Chi-square test of independence was used to analyse the above factors and there was a significant association between the type of skin microenvironment and the distribution of skin microbiota (=0.03) (type of skin microenvironment influences the distribution of skin microbiota).

Coagulase-negative spp. was the most common bacteria isolated from the skin of the healthcare workers. Even though coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) are low pathogenic bacteria, but it may cause serious infection in high risk group of patients. Therefore, it is important to emphasize on the good hand hygiene practices and implement strict infection control measures to minimize the risk of HAI in newly opened hospitals.

  • Received:
  • Accepted:
  • Published Online:
Keyword(s): bacterial isolates , coagulase-negative Staphylococcus (CoNS) , Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria , hospital environment and skin microbiota
© 2023 The Authors
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journal/jmm/10.1099/jmm.0.001732
2023-07-11
2025-04-25
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Methé BA, Nelson KE, Pop M, Creasy HH, Giglio MG et al. A framework for human microbiome research. Nature 2012; 486:215–221 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Blaser MJ, Dominguez-Bello MG, Contreras M, Magris M, Hidalgo G et al. Distinct cutaneous bacterial assemblages in a sampling of South American Amerindians and US residents. ISME J 2013; 7:85–95 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  3. Lax S, Smith DP, Hampton-marcell J, Owens SM, Handley M et al. Humpback whales harbour. Science 2014; 345:1048–1052 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Palmer DJ, Metcalfe J, Makrides M, Gold MS, Quinn P et al. Early regular egg exposure in infants with eczema: a randomized controlled trial. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2013; 132:387–92 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Meadow JF, Altrichter AE, Green JL. Mobile phones carry the personal microbiome of their owners. PeerJ 2014; 2:e447 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Eisenstein M. The skin microbiome. Nature 2020; 588:S209 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Sanford JA, Gallo RL. Functions of the skin microbiota in health and disease. Semin Immunol 2013; 25:370–377 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Zeeuwen PLJM, Kleerebezem M, Timmerman HM, Schalkwijk J. Microbiome and skin diseases. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2013; 13:514–520 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Bensadoun RJ, Humbert P, Krutman J, Luger T, Triller R et al. Daily baseline skin care in the prevention, treatment, and supportive care of skin toxicity in oncology patients: recommendations from a multinational expert panel. Cancer Manag Res 2013; 5:401–408 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Tripathi A, Melnik AV, Xue J, Poulsen O, Meehan MJ et al. Intermittent Hypoxia and Hypercapnia, a hallmark of obstructive sleep apnea, alters the gut microbiome and metabolome. mSystems 2018; 3:e00020-18 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Kim BY, Choi JW, Park KC, Youn SW. Sebum, acne, skin elasticity, and gender difference - which is the major influencing factor for facial pores?. Skin Res Technol 2013; 19:e45–53 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Ying S, Zeng DN, Chi L, Tan Y, Galzote C et al. The influence of age and gender on skin-associated microbial communities in urban and rural human populations. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0141842 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Best EL, Parnell P, Wilcox MH. Microbiological comparison of hand-drying methods: the potential for contamination of the environment, user, and bystander. J Hosp Infect 2014; 88:199–206 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Urban J, Fergus DJ, Savage AM, Ehlers M, Menninger HL et al. The effect of habitual and experimental antiperspirant and deodorant product use on the armpit microbiome. PeerJ 2016; 4:e1605 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Unno M, Cho O, Sugita T. Inhibition of Propionibacterium acnes lipase activity by the antifungal agent ketoconazole. Microbiol Immunol 2017; 61:42–44 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Tudor C, Van der Walt M, Margot B, Dorman SE, Pan WK et al. Tuberculosis among health care workers in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: a retrospective cohort analysis. BMC Public Health 2014; 14:891 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Suwantarat N, Apisarnthanarak A. Risks to healthcare workers with emerging diseases: lessons from MERS-CoV, Ebola, SARS, and avian flu. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2015; 28:349–361 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Yang ES, Tan J, Eells S, Rieg G, Tagudar G et al. Body site colonization in patients with community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and other types of S. aureus skin infections. Clin Microbiol Infect 2010; 16:425–431 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Huis A, Hulscher M, Adang E, Grol R, van Achterberg T et al. Cost-effectiveness of a team and leaders-directed strategy to improve nurses’ adherence to hand hygiene guidelines: a cluster randomised trial. Int J Nurs Stud 2013; 50:518–526 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Yu W, Kim HK, Rauch S, Schneewind O, Missiakas D. Pathogenic conversion of coagulase-negative staphylococci. Microbes Infect 2017; 19:101–109 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Widerström M, Wiström J, Sjöstedt A, Monsen T. Coagulase-negative staphylococci: update on the molecular epidemiology and clinical presentation, with a focus on Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus saprophyticus. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2012; 31:7–20 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Warnke P, Frickmann H, Ottl P, Podbielski A. Nasal screening for MRSA: different swabs--different results!. PLoS One 2014; 9:e111627 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Khanal R, Sah P, Lamichhane P, Lamsal A, Upadhaya S et al. Nasal carriage of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus among health care workers at a tertiary care hospital in Western Nepal. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control 2015; 4:39 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Shibabaw A, Abebe T, Mihret A. Nasal carriage rate of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus among Dessie Referral Hospital Health Care Workers; Dessie, Northeast Ethiopia. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control 2013; 2:1–5 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Rongpharpi SR, Hazarika NK, Kalita H. The prevalence of nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus among healthcare workers at a tertiary care hospital in assam with special reference to MRSA. J Clin Diagn Res 2013; 7:257–260 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Dixit R. Comparison of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) carriage among Health Care Workers serving in different areas of Cardiac Unit of a Tertiary Care Hospital. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 2018; 7:1348–1353 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Hu H, Johani K, Gosbell IB, Jacombs ASW, Almatroudi A et al. Intensive care unit environmental surfaces are contaminated by multidrug-resistant bacteria in biofilms: combined results of conventional culture, pyrosequencing, scanning electron microscopy, and confocal laser microscopy. J Hosp Infect 2015; 91:35–44 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Van Der Zwet WC, Parlevliet GA, Savelkoul PH, Stoof J, Kaiser AM et al. Outbreak of Bacillus cereus infections in a neonatal intensive care unit traced to balloons used in manual ventilation. J Clin Microbiol 2000; 38:4131–4136 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Petruk G, Donadio G, Lanzilli M, Isticato R, Monti DM. Alternative use of Bacillus subtilis spores: protection against environmental oxidative stress in human normal keratinocytes. Sci Rep 2018; 8:1745 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Sasahara T, Hayashi S, Hosoda K, Morisawa Y, Hirai Y. Comparison of hand hygiene procedures for removing Bacillus cereus spores. Biocontrol Sci 2014; 19:129–134 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Balm MND, Jureen R, Teo C, Yeoh AEJ, Lin RTP et al. Hot and steamy: outbreak of Bacillus cereus in Singapore associated with construction work and laundry practices. J Hosp Infect 2012; 81:224–230 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Sasahara T, Hayashi S, Morisawa Y, Sakihama T, Yoshimura A et al. Bacillus cereus bacteremia outbreak due to contaminated hospital linens. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2011; 30:219–226 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Tajeddin E, Rashidan M, Razaghi M, Javadi SSS, Sherafat SJ et al. The role of the intensive care unit environment and health-care workers in the transmission of bacteria associated with hospital acquired infections. J Infect Public Health 2016; 9:13–23 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Costa DM, Johani K, Melo DS, Lopes LKO, Lopes Lima LKO et al. Biofilm contamination of high-touched surfaces in intensive care units: epidemiology and potential impacts. Lett Appl Microbiol 2019; 68:269–276 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Chowdhury D, Tahir S, Legge M, Hu H, Prvan T et al. Transfer of dry surface biofilm in the healthcare environment: the role of healthcare workers’ hands as vehicles. J Hosp Infect 2018; 100:e85–e90 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Caporaso JG, Lauber CL, Costello EK, Berg-Lyons D, Gonzalez A et al. Moving pictures of the human microbiome. Genome Biol 2011; 12:R50 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Del Pozo JL. Biofilm-related disease. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2018; 16:51–65 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Mathieu A, Delmont TO, Vogel TM, Robe P, Nalin R et al. Life on human surfaces: skin metagenomics. PLoS One 2013; 8:e65288 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Maravić A, Skočibušić M, Fredotović Ž, Šamanić I, Cvjetan S et al. Urban riverine environment is a source of multidrug-resistant and ESBL-producing clinically important Acinetobacter spp. Environ Sci Pollut Res 2016; 23:3525–3535 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Al Atrouni A, Joly-Guillou M-L, Hamze M, Kempf M. Reservoirs of non-baumannii Acinetobacter species. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:49 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Sherwani MA, Tufail S, Muzaffar AF, Yusuf N. The skin microbiome and immune system: potential target for chemoprevention?. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed 2018; 34:25–34 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Tas MY, Oguz MM, Ceri M. Acinetobacter lwoffii peritonitis in a patient on automated peritoneal dialysis: a case report and review of the literature. Case Rep Nephrol 2017; 2017:5760254 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  43. Peleg AY, Seifert H, Paterson DL. Acinetobacter baumannii: emergence of a successful pathogen. Clin Microbiol Rev 2008; 21:538–582 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  44. Suva M, Sureja V, Kheni D. Novel insight on probiotic Bacillus subtilis: mechanism of action and clinical applications. J Curr Res Sci Med 2016; 2:65 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  45. Hota B, Blom DW, Lyle EA, Weinstein RA, Hayden MK. Interventional evaluation of environmental contamination by vancomycin-resistant enterococci: failure of personnel, product, or procedure?. J Hosp Infect 2009; 71:123–131 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Kramer A, Schwebke I, Kampf G. How long do nosocomial pathogens persist on inanimate surfaces? A systematic review. BMC Infect Dis 2006; 6:1–8 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  47. Woo KS, Choi JL, Kim BR, Kim JE, Kim KH et al. Outbreak of pseudomonas oryzihabitans pseudobacteremia related to contaminated equipment in an emergency room of a tertiary hospital in Korea. Infect Chemother 2014; 46:42–44 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Aykac K, Ozsurekci Y, Tanir Basaranoglu S. Future directions and molecular basis of ventilator associated pneumonia. Can Respir J 2017; 2017:2614602 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  49. Olm MR, Brown CT, Brooks B, Firek B, Baker R et al. Corresponding Author Contact Info 2017 pp 1–32
     [Google Scholar]
  50. Dempsey KE, Riggio MP, Lennon A, Hannah VE, Ramage G et al. Identification of bacteria on the surface of clinically infected and non-infected prosthetic hip joints removed during revision arthroplasties by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and by microbiological culture. Arthritis Res Ther 2007; 9:R46 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  51. Gao Z, Perez-Perez GI, Chen Y, Blaser MJ. Quantitation of major human cutaneous bacterial and fungal populations. J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48:3575–3581 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Flowers L, Grice EA. The skin microbiota: balancing risk and reward. Cell Host Microbe 2020; 28:190–200 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Byrd AL, Belkaid Y, Segre JA. The human skin microbiome. Nat Rev Microbiol 2018; 16:143–155 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  54. Bouslimani A, da Silva R, Kosciolek T, Janssen S, Callewaert C et al. The impact of skin care products on skin chemistry and microbiome dynamics. BMC Biol 2019; 17:47 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  55. Lee HJ, Jeong SE, Lee S, Kim S, Han H et al. Effects of cosmetics on the skin microbiome of facial cheeks with different hydration levels. MicrobiologyOpen 2018; 7:e00557 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
/content/journal/jmm/10.1099/jmm.0.001732
Loading
Hidden bugs in a newly opened hospital: the distribution of skin microbiota among healthcare workers in a newly opened teaching hospital
J. Med. Microbiol. 72, 001732 (2023); https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.001732
/content/journal/jmm/10.1099/jmm.0.001732
/content/journal/jmm/10.1099/jmm.0.001732
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Most cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error