1887

Journal of Medical Microbiology logo

Volume 70, Issue 12

Treating autism spectrum disorder by intervening with gut microbiota No Access

Abstract

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) comprises a group of neurodevelopmental disorders with a high prevalence in childhood. The gut microbiota can affect human cognition and moods and has a strong correlation with ASD. Microbiota transplantation, including faecal microbiota transplantation (FMT), probiotics, breastfeeding, formula feeding, gluten-free and casein-free (GFCF) diet and ketogenic diet therapy, may provide satisfying effects for ASD and its related various symptoms. For instance, FMT can improve the core symptoms of ASD and gastrointestinal symptoms. Probiotics, breastfeeding and formula feeding, and GFCF diet can improve gastrointestinal symptoms. The core symptom score still needs to be confirmed by large-scale clinical randomized controlled studies. It is recommended to use a ketogenic diet to treat patients with epilepsy in ASD. At present, the unresolved problems include which of gut the microbiota are beneficial, which of the microorganisms are harmful, how to safely and effectively implant beneficial bacteria into the human body, and how to extract and eliminate harmful microorganisms before transplantation. In future studies, large sample and randomized controlled clinical studies are needed to confirm the mechanism of intestinal microorganisms in the treatment of ASD and the method of microbial transplantation.

  • Received:
  • Accepted:
  • Published Online:
Keyword(s): autism spectrum disorder , faecal microbiota transplantation , gut–brain axis and probiotics
© 2021 The Authors
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journal/jmm/10.1099/jmm.0.001469
2021-12-13
2024-04-24
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Baio J, Wiggins L, Christensen DL, Maenner MJ, Daniels J et al. Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years — autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 Sites, United States, 2014. MMWR Surveill Summ 2018; 67:1–23 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Fombonne E, MacFarlane H, Salem AC. Epidemiological surveys of ASD: advances and remaining challenges. J Autism Dev Disord 2021; 51:4271–4290 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  3. Hegarty II JP, Lazzeroni LC, Raman MM, Hallmayer JF, Cleveland SC et al. Genetic and environmental influences on corticostriatal circuits in twins with autism. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2020; 45:188–197 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Hallmayer J, Cleveland S, Torres A, Phillips J, Cohen B et al. Genetic heritability and shared environmental factors among twin pairs with autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2011; 68:1095 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Cacho NT, Lawrence RM. Innate immunity and breast milk. Front Immunol 2017; 8:584 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Fernández L, Langa S, Martín V, Maldonado A, Jiménez E et al. The human milk microbiota: origin and potential roles in health and disease. Pharmacol Res 2013; 69:1–10 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Wang C, Geng H, Liu W, Zhang G. Prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal factors associated with autism. Medicine (Baltimore) 2017; 96:e6696 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Castro K, Baronio D, Perry IS, Riesgo R dos S, Gottfried C. The effect of ketogenic diet in an animal model of autism induced by prenatal exposure to valproic acid. Nutritional Neuroscience 2016; 20:343–350 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Sender R, Fuchs S, Milo R. Are we really vastly outnumbered? revisiting the ratio of bacterial to host cells in humans. Cell 2016; 164:337–340 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Hayashi T, Yamashita T, Watanabe H, Kami K, Yoshida N et al. Gut microbiome and plasma microbiome-related metabolites in patients with decompensated and compensated heart failure. Circ J 2018; 83:182–192 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Romo-Vaquero M, Cortés-Martín A, Loria-Kohen V, Ramírez-de-Molina A, García-Mantrana I et al. Deciphering the human gut microbiome of urolithin metabotypes: association with enterotypes and potential cardiometabolic health implications. Mol Nutr Food Res 2019; 63:1800958 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Sgritta M, Dooling SW, Buffington SA, Momin EN, Francis MB et al. Mechanisms underlying microbial-mediated changes in social behavior in mouse models of autism spectrum disorder. Neuron 2019; 101:246–259 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Needham BD, Tang W, Wu W-L. Searching for the gut microbial contributing factors to social behavior in rodent models of autism spectrum disorder. Devel Neurobio 2018; 78:474–499 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Mayer EA, Padua D, Tillisch K. Altered brain-gut axis in autism: comorbidity or causative mechanisms?. Bioessays 2014; 36:933–939 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Galland L. The gut microbiome and the brain. Journal of Medicinal Food 2014; 17:1261–1272 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Rhee SH, Pothoulakis C, Mayer EA. Principles and clinical implications of the brain–gut–enteric microbiota axis. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009; 6:306–314 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Viggiano D, Ianiro G, Vanella G, Bibbò S, Bruno G et al. Gut barrier in health and disease: focus on childhood,Eur. Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2015; 19:1077–1085
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Clarke G, Grenham S, Scully P, Fitzgerald P, Moloney RD et al. The microbiome-gut-brain axis during early life regulates the hippocampal serotonergic system in a sex-dependent manner. Mol Psychiatry 2013; 18:666–673 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Jiang C, Li G, Huang P, Liu Z, Zhao B. The gut microbiota and alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2017; 58:1–15 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Gerhardt S, Mohajeri MH. Changes of colonic bacterial composition in parkinson’s disease and other neurodegenerative diseases. Nutrients 2018; 10:E708. [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Hasegawa S, Goto S, Tsuji H, Okuno T, Asahara T et al. Intestinal dysbiosis and lowered serum lipopolysaccharide-binding protein in parkinson’s disease. PLoS ONE 2015; 10:e0142164 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Lach G, Schellekens H, Dinan TG, Cryan JF. Anxiety, depression, and the microbiome: a role for gut peptides. Neurotherapeutics 2018; 15:36–59 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Karl JP, Margolis LM, Madslien EH, Murphy NE, Castellani JW et al. Changes in intestinal microbiota composition and metabolism coincide with increased intestinal permeability in young adults under prolonged physiological stress. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2017; 312:G559–G571 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Pearce SC, Mani V, Weber TE, Rhoads RP, Patience JF et al. Heat stress and reduced plane of nutrition decreases intestinal integrity and function in pigs. J Anim Sci 2013; 91:5183–5193 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Logsdon AF, Erickson MA, Rhea EM, Salameh TS, Banks WA. Gut reactions: How the blood–brain barrier connects the microbiome and the brain. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2017; 243:159–165 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Braniste V, Al-Asmakh M, Kowal C, Anuar F, Abbaspour A et al. The gut microbiota influences blood-brain barrier permeability in mice. Sci Transl Med 2014; 6:263 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Iglesias-Vázquez L, Van Ginkel Riba G, Arija V, Canals J. Composition of gut microbiota in children with autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients 2020; 12:792 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Finegold SM, Dowd SE, Gontcharova V, Liu C, Henley KE et al. Pyrosequencing study of fecal microflora of autistic and control children. Anaerobe 2010; 16:444–453 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Tărlungeanu DC, Deliu E, Dotter CP, Kara M, Janiesch PC et al. Impaired amino acid transport at the blood brain barrier is a cause of autism spectrum disorder. Cell 2016; 167:1481–1494 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Dodd D, Spitzer MH, Van Treuren W, Merrill BD, Hryckowian AJ et al. A gut bacterial pathway metabolizes aromatic amino acids into nine circulating metabolites. Nature 2017; 551:648–652 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Oleskin AV, Shenderov BA. Probiotics and psychobiotics: the role of microbial neurochemicals. Probiotics Antimicrob Proteins 2019; 11:1071–1085 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Gabriele S, Sacco R, Cerullo S, Neri C, Urbani A et al. Urinary p-cresol is elevated in young French children with autism spectrum disorder: a replication study. Biomarkers 2014; 19:463–470 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Altieri L, Neri C, Sacco R, Curatolo P, Benvenuto A et al. Urinary p-cresol is elevated in small children with severe autism spectrum disorder. Biomarkers 2011; 16:252–260 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Gabriele S, Sacco R, Altieri L, Neri C, Urbani A et al. Slow intestinal transit contributes to elevate urinary p-cresol level in Italian autistic children. Autism Res 2016; 9:752–759 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Bjørklund G, Tinkov AA, Hosnedlová B, Kizek R, Ajsuvakova OP et al. The role of glutathione redox imbalance in autism spectrum disorder: A review. Free Radic Biol Med 2020; 160:149–162 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Han Y, Xi Q, Dai W, Yang S, Gao L et al. Abnormal transsulfuration metabolism and reduced antioxidant capacity in Chinese children with autism spectrum disorders. Int J Dev Neurosci 2015; 46:27–32 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Pulikkan J, Mazumder A, Grace T. Role of the gut microbiome in autism spectrum disorders. Adv Exp Med Biol 2019; 1118:253–269 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Ristori MV, Quagliariello A, Reddel S, Ianiro G, Vicari S et al. Autism, gastrointestinal symptoms and modulation of gut microbiota by nutritional interventions. Nutrients 2019; 11:E2812 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Pulikkan J, Maji A, Dhakan DB, Saxena R, Mohan B et al. Gut microbial dysbiosis in indian children with autism spectrum disorders. Microb Ecol 2018; 76:1102–1114 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Finegold SM. Desulfovibrio species are potentially important in regressive autism. Med Hypotheses 2011; 77:270–274 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Kang DW, Ilhan ZE, Isern NG, Hoyt DW, Howsmon DP et al. Differences in fecal microbial metabolites and microbiota of children with autism spectrum disorders. Anaerobe 2018; 49:121–131 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Liu S, Li E, Sun Z, Fu D, Duan G et al. Altered gut microbiota and short chain fatty acids in Chinese children with autism spectrum disorder. Sci Rep 2019; 9:287 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  43. Sharon G, Sampson TR, Geschwind DH, Mazmanian SK. The central nervous system and the gut microbiome. Cell 2016; 167:915–932 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  44. Bjørklund G, Kern JK, Urbina MA, Saad K, El-Houfey AA et al. Cerebral hypoperfusion in autism spectrum disorder. Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis 2018; 78:21–29 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  45. Crespi BJ. Comparative psychopharmacology of autism and psychotic-affective disorders suggests new targets for treatment. Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health 2019; 2019:149–168 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Jerger KK, Lundegard L, Piepmeier A, Faurot K, Ruffino A et al. Neural mechanisms of qigong sensory training massage for children with autism spectrum disorder: a feasibility study. Glob Adv Health Med 2018; 7:216495611876900 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  47. Institute of Physical Education and Sport Science, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China Xu W, Yao J. Physical Education Institute, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan, Hunan, China Liu W et al. Intervention effect of sensory integration training on the behaviors and quality of life of children with autism. Psychiat Danub 2019; 3:340–346 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Case-Smith J, Weaver LL, Fristad MA. A systematic review of sensory processing interventions for children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism 2015; 19:133–148 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  49. Cacho N, Neu J. Manipulation of the intestinal microbiome in newborn infants. Adv Nutr 2014; 5:114–118 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  50. Schei K, Avershina E, Øien T, Rudi K, Follestad T et al. Early gut mycobiota and mother-offspring transfer. Microbiome 2017; 5:107 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  51. Collado MC, Rautava S, Aakko J, Isolauri E, Salminen S. Human gut colonisation may be initiated in utero by distinct microbial communities in the placenta and amniotic fluid. Sci Rep 2016; 6:23129 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Vindigni SM, Surawicz CM. Fecal Microbiota Transplantation. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2017; 46:171–185 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Zhou L, Foster JA. Psychobiotics and the gut-brain axis: in the pursuit of happiness. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2015; 11:715–723 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  54. Lessa FC, Winston LG, McDonald LC. and Emerging Infections Program C Burden of Clostridium difficile infection in the United States. N Engl J Med 2015; 372:2368–2370 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  55. Webb BJ, Brunner A, Ford CD, Gazdik MA, Petersen FB et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Transpl Infect Dis 2016; 18:628–633 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  56. Taur Y, Coyte K, Schluter J, Robilotti E, Figueroa C et al. Reconstitution of the gut microbiota of antibiotic-treated patients by autologous fecal microbiota transplant. Sci Transl Med 2018; 10:460 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  57. Chung I-C, OuYang C-N, Yuan S-N, Lin H-C, Huang K-Y et al. Pretreatment with a heat-killed probiotic modulates the NLRP3 inflammasome and attenuates colitis-associated colorectal cancer in Mice. Nutrients 2019; 11:E516 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  58. Smits LP, Kootte RS, Levin E, Prodan A, Fuentes S et al. Effect of vegan fecal microbiota transplantation on carnitine- and choline-derived trimethylamine-N-oxide production and vascular inflammation in patients with metabolic syndrome. J Am Heart Assoc 2018; 7:e008342 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  59. Garza-González E, Mendoza-Olazarán S, Morfin-Otero R, Ramírez-Fontes A, Rodríguez-Zulueta P et al. Intestinal Microbiome Changes in Fecal Microbiota Transplant (FMT) vs. FMT Enriched with Lactobacillus in the Treatment of Recurrent Clostridioides difficile Infection. Can J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2019; 2019:4549298 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  60. Kang D-W, Adams JB, Gregory AC, Borody T, Chittick L et al. Microbiota Transfer Therapy alters gut ecosystem and improves gastrointestinal and autism symptoms: an open-label study. Microbiome 2017; 5:10 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Chen QY, Yang B, Tian HL, Lin ZL, Zhao D et al. Association between the clinical efficacy of fecal microbiota transplantation in recipients and the choice of donor, Zhonghua. Wei Chang Wa.i Ke ZaZhi 2020; 23:Z1–76 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  62. Pereira GQ, Gomes LA, Santos IS, Alfieri AF, Weese JS et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation in puppies with canine parvovirus infection. J Vet Intern Med 2018; 32:707–711 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  63. Youngster I, Russell GH, Pindar C, Ziv-Baran T, Sauk J et al. Oral, capsulized, frozen fecal microbiota transplantation for relapsing Clostridium difficile infection. JAMA 2014; 312:1772 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  64. Allegretti JR, Kassam Z, Fischer M, Kelly C, Chan WW. Risk factors for gastrointestinal symptoms following successful eradication of Clostridium difficile by Fecal Microbiota Transplantation (FMT). JClinGastroenterol 2019; 53:e405–e408 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  65. Yu EW, Gao L, Stastka P, Cheney MC, Mahabamunuge J et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation for the improvement of metabolism in obesity: The FMT-TRIM double-blind placebo-controlled pilot trial. PLoS Med 2020; 17:e1003051 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  66. El-Salhy M, Hatlebakk JG, Gilja OH, Bråthen Kristoffersen A, Hausken T. Efficacy of faecal microbiota transplantation for patients with irritable bowel syndrome in a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Gut 2020; 69:859–867 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  67. Aroniadis OC, Brandt LJ, Oneto C, Feuerstadt P, Sherman A et al. Faecal microbiota transplantation for diarrhoea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome: a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol 2019; 4:675–685 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  68. Kelly CR, Khoruts A, Staley C, Sadowsky MJ, Abd M et al. Effect of fecal microbiota transplantation on recurrence in multiply recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2016; 165:609–616 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  69. Hvas CL, Dahl Jørgensen SM, Jørgensen SP, Storgaard M, Lemming L et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation is superior to fidaxomicin for treatment of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Gastroenterology 2019; 156:1324–1332 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  70. Zhang T, Lu G, Zhao Z, Liu Y, Shen Q et al. Washed microbiota transplantation vs. manual fecal microbiota transplantation: clinical findings, animal studies and in vitro screening. Protein Cell 2020; 11:251–266 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  71. Fecal Microbiota Transplantation-standardization Study Group Nanjing consensus on methodology of washed microbiota transplantation. ChinMedJ 2020; 133:2330–2332 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  72. Marcella C, Cui B, Kelly CR, Ianiro G, Cammarota G et al. Systematic review: the global incidence of faecal microbiota transplantation-related adverse events from 2000 to 2020. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2021; 53:33–42 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  73. Bhutiani N, Schucht JE, Miller KR, McClave SA. Technical aspects of Fecal Microbial Transplantation (FMT). Curr Gastroenterol Rep 2018; 20:30 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  74. Weingarden AR, Vaughn BP. Intestinal microbiota, fecal microbiota transplantation, and inflammatory bowel disease. Gut Microbes 2017; 8:238–252 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  75. van Beurden YH, de Groot PF, van Nood E, Nieuwdorp M, Keller JJ et al. Complications, effectiveness, and long term follow-up of fecal microbiota transfer by nasoduodenal tube for treatment of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. United European Gastroenterol J 2017; 5:868–879 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  76. Hvas CL, Dahl Jørgensen SM, Jørgensen SP, Storgaard M, Lemming L et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation is superior to fidaxomicin for treatment of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Gastroenterology 2019; 156:1324–1332 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  77. Hota SS, Sales V, Tomlinson G, Salpeter MJ, McGeer A et al. Oral vancomycin followed by fecal transplantation versus tapering oral vancomycin treatment for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: an open-label, randomized controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis 2017; 64:265–271 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  78. Allegretti JR, Fischer M, Sagi SV, Bohm ME, Fadda HM et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation capsules with targeted colonic versus gastric delivery in recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: a comparative cohort analysis of high and lose dose. Dig Dis Sci 2019; 64:1672–1678 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  79. Kang D-W, Adams JB, Gregory AC, Borody T, Chittick L et al. Microbiota transfer therapy alters gut ecosystem and improves gastrointestinal and autism symptoms: an open-label study. Microbiome 2017; 5:10 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  80. Kang DW, Adams JB, Coleman DM, Pollard EL, Maldonado J et al. Long-term benefit of Microbiota Transfer Therapy on autism symptoms and gut microbiota. Sci Rep 2019; 9:5821. [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  81. Sarkar A, Lehto SM, Harty S, Dinan TG, Cryan JF et al. Psychobiotics and the manipulation of bacteria-gut-brain signals,trends. Neurosci 2016; 39:11–781 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  82. Kataoka K. The intestinal microbiota and its role in human health and disease. J Med Invest 2016; 63:27–37 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  83. Pärtty A, Kalliomäki M, Wacklin P, Salminen S, Isolauri E. A possible link between early probiotic intervention and the risk of neuropsychiatric disorders later in childhood: a randomized trial. Pediatr Res 2015; 77:823–828 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  84. Bagga D, Reichert JL, Koschutnig K, Aigner CS, Holzer P et al. Probiotics drive gut microbiome triggering emotional brain signatures. Gut Microbes 2018; 9:1–11 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  85. Sanctuary MR, Kain JN, Chen SY, Kalanetra K, Lemay DG et al. Pilot study of probiotic/colostrum supplementation on gut function in children with autism and gastrointestinal symptoms. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0210064 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  86. Grimaldi R, Gibson GR, Vulevic J, Giallourou N, Castro-Mejía JL et al. A prebiotic intervention study in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Microbiome 2018; 6:133 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  87. Shaaban SY, El Gendy YG, Mehanna NS, El-Senousy WM, El-Feki HSA et al. The role of probiotics in children with autism spectrum disorder: A prospective, open-label study. Nutr Neurosci 2018; 21:676–681 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  88. Parracho H MRT, Gibson GR, Knott F, Bosscher D, Kleerebezem M et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover-designed probiotic feeding study in children diagnosed with autistic spectrum disorders[J]. Int J Probiotics Prebiotics 2010; 5:69–74
     [Google Scholar]
  89. Tomova A, Husarova V, Lakatosova S, Bakos J, Vlkova B et al. Gastrointestinal microbiota in children with autism in Slovakia. Physiol Behav 2015; 138:179–187 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  90. Niu M, Li Q, Zhang J, Wen F, Dang W et al. Characterization of intestinal microbiota and probiotics treatment in children with autism spectrum disorders in China. Front Neurol 2019; 10:1084. [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  91. Santocchi E, Guiducci L, Prosperi M, Calderoni S, Gaggini M et al. Effects of probiotic supplementation on gastrointestinal, sensory and core symptoms in autism spectrum disorders: a randomized controlled trial. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:550593 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  92. Arnold LE, Luna RA, Williams K, Chan J, Parker RA et al. Probiotics for gastrointestinal symptoms and quality of life in autism: a placebo-controlled pilot trial. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2019; 29:659–669 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  93. Wang Y, Li N, Yang J-J, Zhao D-M, Chen B et al. Probiotics and fructo-oligosaccharide intervention modulate the microbiota-gut brain axis to improve autism spectrum reducing also the hyper-serotonergic state and the dopamine metabolism disorder. Pharmacological Research 2020; 157:104784 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  94. Kałużna-Czaplińska J, Błaszczyk S. The level of arabinitol in autistic children after probiotic therapy. Nutrition 2012; 28:124–126 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  95. West R, Roberts E. Improvements in gastrointestinal symptoms among children with autism spectrum disorder receiving the Delpro Probiotic and immunomodulator formulation[J]. Journal of Probiotics & Health 2013; 1:102
     [Google Scholar]
  96. Zmora N, Zilberman-Schapira G, Suez J, Mor U, Dori-Bachash M et al. Personalized gut mucosal colonization resistance to empiric probiotics is associated with unique host and microbiome features. Cell 2018; 174:1388–1405 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  97. Santos‐Marcos JA, Haro C, Vega‐Rojas A, Alcala‐Diaz JF, Molina‐Abril H et al. Sex differences in the gut microbiota as potential determinants of gender predisposition to disease. Mol Nutr Food Res 2019; 63:1800870 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  98. Towle PO, Patrick PA. Autism spectrum disorder screening instruments for very young children: a systematic review. Autism Research and Treatment 2016; 2016:1–29 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  99. Liu Y-W, Liu W-H, Wu C-C, Juan Y-C, Wu Y-C et al. Psychotropic effects of Lactobacillus plantarum PS128 in early life-stressed and naïve adult mice. Brain Research 2016; 1631:1–12 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  100. Liu W-H, Chuang H-L, Huang Y-T, Wu C-C, Chou G-T et al. Alteration of behavior and monoamine levels attributable to Lactobacillus plantarum PS128 in germ-free mice. Behavioural Brain Research 2016; 298:202–209 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  101. Liu Y-W, Liong MT, Chung Y-CE, Huang H-Y, Peng W-S et al. Effects of Lactobacillus plantarum PS128 on children with autism spectrum disorder in Taiwan: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Nutrients 2019; 11:E820 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  102. Liu YW, Liong MT, Tsai YC. New perspectives of Lactobacillus plantarum as a probiotic: The gut-heart-brain axis. J Microbiol 2018; 56:601–613 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  103. Savage JH, Lee-Sarwar KA, Sordillo JE, Lange NE, Zhou Y et al. Diet during pregnancy and infancy and the infant intestinal microbiome. J Pediatr 2018; 203:47–54 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  104. Pongsakul N, Kanaprach P, Chiangjong W, Supapannachart S, Nuntnarumit P et al. Fetal intestinal cell growth as a measure of the comparative biofunctionality of human milk and infant formulas: an in vitro study. Breastfeeding Medicine 2018; 13:510–515 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  105. Kidd SA, Berry-Kravis E, Choo TH, Chen C, Esler A et al. Improving the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder in fragile X syndrome by adapting the social communication questionnaire and the social responsiveness scale-2. J Autism Dev Disord 2019; 50:3276–3295 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  106. Musilova S, Rada V, Vlkova E, Bunesova V. Beneficial effects of human milk oligosaccharides on gut microbiota. Beneficial Microbes 2014; 5:273–283 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  107. Lange KW, Hauser J, Reissmann A. Gluten-free and casein-free diets in the therapy of autism. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care 2015; 18:572–575 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  108. Marí-Bauset S, Llopis-González A, Zazpe I, Marí-Sanchis A, Suárez-Varela MM. Nutritional impact of a gluten-free casein-free diet in children with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 2015; 46:673–684 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  109. Jarmołowska B, Bukało M, Fiedorowicz E, Cieślińska A, Kordulewska NK et al. Role of milk-derived opioid peptides and proline dipeptidyl peptidase-4 in autism spectrum disorders. Nutrients 2019; 11:E87 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  110. González-Domenech PJ, Díaz Atienza F, García Pablos C, Fernández Soto ML, Martínez-Ortega JM et al. Influence of a combined gluten-free and casein-free diet on behavior disorders in children and adolescents diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder: a 12-month follow-up clinical trial. J Autism Dev Disord 2019; 50:935–948 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  111. Lange KW, Hauser J, Reissmann A. Gluten-free and casein-free diets in the therapy of autism. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2015; 18:572–575 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  112. Moreno-Pérez D, Bressa C, Bailén M, Hamed-Bousdar S, Naclerio F et al. Effect of a protein supplement on the gut microbiota of endurance athletes: a randomized, controlled, double-blind pilot study. Nutrients 2018; 10:E337 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  113. Navarro F, Pearson DA, Fatheree N, Mansour R, Hashmi SS et al. Are “leaky gut” and behavior associated with gluten and dairy containing diet in children with autism spectrum disorders?. Nutr Neurosci 2015; 18:177–185 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  114. Piwowarczyk A, Horvath A, Łukasik J, Pisula E, Szajewska H. Gluten- and casein-free diet and autism spectrum disorders in children: a systematic review. Eur J Nutr 2018; 57:433–440 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  115. Elder JH, Shankar M, Shuster J, Theriaque D, Burns S et al. The gluten-free, casein-free diet in autism: results of a preliminary double blind clinical trial. J Autism Dev Disord 2006; 36:413–420 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  116. Hyman SL, Stewart PA, Foley J, Cain U, Peck R et al. The gluten-free/casein-free diet: a double-blind challenge trial in children with autism. J Autism Dev Disord 2016; 46:205–220 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  117. Newman JC, Verdin E. Ketone bodies as signaling metabolites. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2014; 25:42–52 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  118. Olson CA, Vuong HE, Yano JM, Liang QY, Nusbaum DJ et al. The gut microbiota mediates the anti-seizure effects of the ketogenic diet. Cell 2018; 173:1728–1741 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  119. Dahlin M, Prast-Nielsen S. The gut microbiome and epilepsy. EBioMedicine 2019; 44:741–746 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  120. Olson CA, Vuong HE, Yano JM, Liang QY, Nusbaum DJ et al. The gut microbiota mediates the anti-seizure effects of the ketogenic diet. Cell 2018; 173:1728–1741 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  121. Youm Y-H, Nguyen KY, Grant RW, Goldberg EL, Bodogai M et al. The ketone metabolite β-hydroxybutyrate blocks NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated inflammatory disease. Nat Med 2015; 21:263–269 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  122. Fodor I, Man SC, Dumitrascu DL. Low fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and polyols diet in children. World J Clin Cases 2019; 7:2666–2674 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  123. Verpeut JL, DiCicco-Bloom E, Bello NT. Ketogenic diet exposure during the juvenile period increases social behaviors and forebrain neural activation in adult Engrailed 2 null mice. Physiol Behav 2016; 161:90–98 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  124. Hampton T. Gut microbes may account for the anti-seizure effects of the ketogenic diet. JAMA 2018; 320:1307 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  125. Lindefeldt M, Eng A, Darban H, Bjerkner A, Zetterström CK et al. The ketogenic diet influences taxonomic and functional composition of the gut microbiota in children with severe epilepsy. NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes 2019; 5:5 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  126. Bostock ECS, Kirkby KC, Taylor BVM. The current status of the ketogenic diet in psychiatry. Front Psychiatry 2017; 8:43 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  127. Ameringen M, Turna J, Patterson B, Pipe A, Mao RQ et al. The gut microbiome in psychiatry: A primer for clinicians. Depress Anxiety 2019; 36:1004–1025 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  128. Gogou M, Kolios G. Are therapeutic diets an emerging additional choice in autism spectrum disorder management?. World J Pediatr 2018; 14:215–223 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
http://instance.metastore.ingenta.com/content/journal/jmm/10.1099/jmm.0.001469
Loading
Treating autism spectrum disorder by intervening with gut microbiota
J. Med. Microbiol. 70, 001469 (2021); https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.001469
/content/journal/jmm/10.1099/jmm.0.001469
/content/journal/jmm/10.1099/jmm.0.001469
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Most cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error