1887

Abstract

Bluetongue is a vector-borne viral disease of ruminants that is endemic in tropical and subtropical countries. Since 1998 the virus has also appeared in Europe. Partly due to the seriousness of the disease, bluetongue virus (BTV), a member of genus within the family , has been a subject of intense molecular study for the last three decades and is now one of the best understood viruses at the molecular and structural levels. BTV is a complex non-enveloped virus with seven structural proteins arranged in two capsids and a genome of ten double-stranded (ds) RNA segments. Shortly after cell entry, the outer capsid is lost to release an inner capsid (the core) which synthesizes capped mRNAs from each genomic segment, extruding them into the cytoplasm. This requires the efficient co-ordination of a number of enzymes, including helicase, polymerase and RNA capping activities. This review will focus on our current understanding of these catalytic proteins as derived from the use of recombinant proteins, combined with functional assays and the reconstitution of the transcription/replication complex. In some cases, 3D structures have complemented this analysis to reveal the fine structural detail of these proteins. The combined activities of the core enzymes produce infectious transcripts necessary and sufficient to initiate BTV infection. Such infectious transcripts can now be synthesized wholly and, when introduced into cells by transfection, lead to the recovery of infectious virus. Future studies thus hold the possibility of analysing the consequence of mutation in a replicating virus system.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/vir.0.2008/002089-0
2008-08-01
2024-03-29
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/jgv/89/8/1789.html?itemId=/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/vir.0.2008/002089-0&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

References

  1. Ahnert P., Patel S. S. 1997; Asymmetric interactions of hexameric bacteriophage T7 DNA helicase with the 5′- and 3′-tails of the forked DNA substrate. J Biol Chem 272:32267–32273 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Appleby T. C., Luecke H., Shim J. H., Wu J. Z., Cheney I. W., Zhong W., Vogeley L., Hong Z., Yao N. 2005; Crystal structure of complete rhinovirus RNA polymerase suggests front loading of protein primer. J Virol 79:277–288 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Banerjee A. K., Shatkin A. J. 1970; Transcription in vitro by reovirus-associated ribonucleic acid-dependent polymerase. J Virol 6:1–11 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Bartlett N. M., Gillies S. C., Bullivant S., Bellamy A. R., Lawton J. A., Zeng C. Q., Mukherjee S. K., Cohen J., Estes M. K. other authors 1974; Electron microscopy study of reovirus reaction cores. J Virol 14:315–326
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Bayliss C. D., Smith G. L. 1996; Vaccinia virion protein I8R has both DNA and RNA helicase activities: implications for vaccinia virus transcription. J Virol 70:794–800
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Beaton A. R., Rodriguez J., Reddy Y. K., Roy P. 2002; The membrane trafficking protein calpactin forms a complex with bluetongue virus protein NS3 and mediates virus release. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99:13154–13159 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Benchimol-Barbosa P. R., Sousa M. O., Barbosa E. C., Bomfim Ade S., Ginefra P., Nadal J. 2002; Analysis of the prevalence of ventricular late potentials in the late phase of myocardial infarction based on the site of infarction. Arq Bras Cardiol 78:352–363
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Bhattacharya B., Noad R. J., Roy P. 2007; Interaction between bluetongue virus outer capsid protein VP2 and vimentin is necessary for virus egress. Virol J 4: 7 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Bird L. E., Brannigan J. A., Subramanya H. S., Wigley D. B. 1998; Characterisation of Bacillus stearothermophilus PcrA helicase: evidence against an active rolling mechanism. Nucleic Acids Res 26:2686–2693 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Boyce M., Roy P. 2007; Recovery of infectious bluetongue virus from RNA. J Virol 81:2179–2186 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Boyce M., Wehrfritz J., Noad R., Roy P. 2004; Purified recombinant bluetongue virus VP1 exhibits RNA replicase activity. J Virol 78:3994–4002 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Boyce M., Celma C. C., Roy P. 2008; A reverse genetics system for bluetongue virus. J Virol (in press
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Bruenn J. A. 1991; Relationships among the positive strand and double-strand RNA viruses as viewed through their RNA-dependent RNA polymerases. Nucleic Acids Res 19:217–226 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Bruenn J. A. 2003; A structural and primary sequence comparison of the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases. Nucleic Acids Res 31:1821–1829 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Bujnicki J. M., Rychlewski L. 2001; Reassignment of specificities of two cap methyltransferase domains in the reovirus lambda 2 protein. Genome Biol 2:RESEARCH0038
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Butcher S. J., Grimes J. M., Makeyev E. V., Bamford D. H., Stuart D. I. 2001; A mechanism for initiating RNA-dependent RNA polymerization. Nature 410:235–240 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Chen D., Zeng C. Q., Wentz M. J., Gorziglia M., Estes M. K., Ramig R. F. 1994; Template-dependent, in vitro replication of rotavirus RNA. J Virol 68:7030–7039
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Choi K. H., Groarke J. M., Young D. C., Kuhn R. J., Smith J. L., Pevear D. C., Rossmann M. G. 2004; The structure of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase from bovine viral diarrhea virus establishes the role of GTP in de novo initiation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101:4425–4430 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Colman P. M., Lawrence M. C. 2003; The structural biology of type I viral membrane fusion. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 4:309–319 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  20. de la Cruz J., Kressler D., Linder P. 1999; Unwinding RNA in Saccharomyces cerevisiae : DEAD-box proteins and related families. Trends Biochem Sci 24:192–198 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  21. DEFRA 2008; Report on the distribution of bluetongue infection in Great Britain on; 15 March 2008 DEFRA http://www.defra.gov.uk/animalh/diseases/notifiable/bluetongue/pdf/epi-report080508.pdf
  22. Dillingham M. S., Kowalczykowski S. C. 2001; A step backward in advancing DNA replication: rescue of stalled replication forks by RecG. Mol Cell 8:734–736 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Diprose J. M., Burroughs J. N., Sutton G. C., Goldsmith A., Gouet P., Malby R., Overton I., Zientara S., Mertens P. P. other authors 2001; Translocation portals for the substrates and products of a viral transcription complex: the bluetongue virus core. EMBO J 20:7229–7239 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Eaton B. T., Hyatt A. D. 1989; Association of bluetongue virus with the cytoskeleton. Subcell Biochem 15:233–273
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Eaton B. T., Hyatt A. D., Brookes S. M. 1990; The replication of bluetongue virus. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 162:89–118
    [Google Scholar]
  26. EFSA 2007; Epidemiological analysis of the 2006 bluetongue virus serotype 8 epidemic in north-western Europe. European Food Safety Authority . http://www.efsa.europa.eu/EFSA/1178620925100/efsa_locale-1178620753812_Bluetongue.htm
  27. Egloff M. P., Benarroch D., Selisko B., Romette J. L., Canard B. 2002; An RNA cap (nucleoside-2′-O-)-methyltransferase in the flavivirus RNA polymerase NS5: crystal structure and functional characterization. EMBO J 21:2757–2768 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Erasmus B. J. 1985; The history of bluetongue. Prog Clin Biol Res 178:7–12
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Espejo R. T., Lopez S., Arias C. 1981; Structural polypeptides of simian rotavirus SA11 and the effect of trypsin. J Virol 37:156–160
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Estes M. K., Graham D. Y., Mason B. B. 1981; Proteolytic enhancement of rotavirus infectivity: molecular mechanisms. J Virol 39:879–888
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Fabrega C., Hausmann S., Shen V., Shuman S., Lima C. D. 2004; Structure and mechanism of mRNA cap (guanine-N7) methyltransferase. Mol Cell 13:77–89 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Ferrer-Orta C., Arias A., Perez-Luque R., Escarmis C., Domingo E., Verdaguer N. 2004; Structure of foot-and-mouth disease virus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and its complex with a template-primer RNA. J Biol Chem 279:47212–47221 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Finkelstein D. B., Mukatira S., Mehta P. K., Obenauer J. C., Su X., Webster R. G., Naeve C. W. 2007; Persistent host markers in pandemic and H5N1 influenza viruses. J Virol 81:10292–10299 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Forzan M., Wirblich C., Roy P. 2004; A capsid protein of nonenveloped Bluetongue virus exhibits membrane fusion activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101:2100–2105 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Forzan M., Marsh M., Roy P. 2007; Bluetongue virus entry into the cells. J Virol 81:4819–4827 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Fouts E. T., Yu X., Egelman E. H., Botchan M. R. 1999; Biochemical and electron microscopic image analysis of the hexameric E1 helicase. J Biol Chem 274:4447–4458 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  37. French T. J., Roy P. 1990; Synthesis of bluetongue virus (BTV) corelike particles by a recombinant baculovirus expressing the two major structural core proteins of BTV. J Virol 64:1530–1536
    [Google Scholar]
  38. French T. J., Inumaru S., Roy P. 1989; Expression of two related nonstructural proteins of bluetongue virus (BTV) type 10 in insect cells by a recombinant baculovirus: production of polyclonal ascitic fluid and characterization of the gene product in BTV-infected BHK cells. J Virol 63:3270–3278
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Fuerst T. R., Fernandez M. P., Moss B. 1989; Transfer of the inducible lac repressor/operator system from Escherichia coli to a vaccinia virus expression vector. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 86:2549–2553 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Fukusho A., Yu Y., Yamaguchi S., Roy P. 1989; Completion of the sequence of bluetongue virus serotype 10 by the characterization of a structural protein, VP6, and a non-structural protein, NS2. J Gen Virol 70:1677–1689 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Furuichi Y., Muthukrishnan S., Shatkin A. 1975; 5′-Terminal m-7G(5′)ppp(5′)G-m-p in vivo : identification in reovirus genome RNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 72:742–745 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Gillies S., Bullivant S., Bellamy A. R. 1971; Viral RNA polymerases: electron microscopy of reovirus reaction cores. Science 174:694–696 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Gogol E. P., Seifried S. E., von Hippel P. H. 1991; Structure and assembly of the Escherichia coli transcription termination factor rho and its interaction with RNA. I. Cryoelectron microscopic studies.. J Mol Biol 221:1127–1138 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Gouet P., Diprose J. M., Grimes J. M., Malby R., Burroughs J. N., Zientara S., Stuart D. I., Mertens P. P. 1999; The highly ordered double-stranded RNA genome of bluetongue virus revealed by crystallography. Cell 97:481–490 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Grimes J. M., Jakana J., Ghosh M., Basak A. K., Roy P., Chiu W., Stuart D. I., Prasad B. V. V. 1997; An atomic model of the outer layer of the bluetongue virus core derived from X-ray crystallography and electron cryomicroscopy. Structure 5:885–893 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Grimes J. M., Burroughs J. N., Gouet P., Diprose J. M., Malby R., Zientara S., Mertens P. P. C., Stuart D. I. 1998; The atomic structure of the bluetongue virus core. Nature 395:470–478 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Gross C. H., Shuman S. 1995; Mutational analysis of vaccinia virus nucleoside triphosphate phosphohydrolase II, a DExH box RNA helicase. J Virol 69:4727–4736
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Hakansson K., Doherty A. J., Shuman S., Wigley D. B. 1997; X-ray crystallography reveals a large conformational change during guanyl transfer by mRNA capping enzymes. Cell 89:545–553 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Hansen J. L., Long A. M., Schultz S. C. 1997; Structure of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of poliovirus. Structure 5:1109–1122 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Hassan S. H., Wirblich C., Forzan M., Roy P. 2001; Expression and functional characterization of bluetongue virus VP5 protein: role in cellular permeabilization. J Virol 75:8356–8367 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Hewat E. A., Booth T. F., Roy P. 1992a; Structure of bluetongue virus particles by cryoelectron microscopy. J Struct Biol 109:61–69 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Hewat E. A., Booth T. F., Loudon P. T., Roy P. 1992b; Three-dimensional reconstruction of baculovirus expressed bluetongue virus core-like particles by cryo-electron microscopy. Virology 189:10–20 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Hewat E. A., Booth T. F., Roy P. 1994; Structure of correctly self-assembled bluetongue virus-like particles. J Struct Biol 112:183–191 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Hodel A. E., Gershon P. D., Quiocho F. A. 1998; Structural basis for sequence-nonspecific recognition of 5′-capped mRNA by a cap-modifying enzyme. Mol Cell 1:443–447 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Huismans H., Els H. J. 1979; Characterization of the tubules associated with the replication of three different orbiviruses. Virology 92:397–406 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Huismans H., Verwoerd D. W. 1973; Control of transcription during the expression of the bluetongue virus genome. Virology 52:81–88 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Huismans H., Van Dijk A. A., Els H. J. 1987; Uncoating of parental bluetongue virus to core and subcore particles in infected L cells. Virology 157:180–188 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Hyatt A. D., Zhao Y., Roy P. 1993; Release of bluetongue virus-like particles from insect cells is mediated by BTV nonstructural protein NS3/NS3A. Virology 193:592–603 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Kadare G., Haenni A. L. 1997; Virus-encoded RNA helicases. J Virol 71:2583–2590
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Kar A. K., Roy P. 2003; Defining the structure-function relationships of bluetongue virus helicase protein VP6. J Virol 77:11347–11356 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Kar A. K., Ghosh M., Roy P. 2004; Mapping the assembly of bluetongue virus scaffolding protein VP3. Virology 324:387–399 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Kar A. K., Bhattacharya B., Roy P. 2007; Bluetongue virus RNA binding protein NS2 is a modulator of viral replication and assembly. BMC Mol Biol 8:4 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Kobayashi T., Antar A. A., Boehme K. W., Danthi P., Eby E. A., Guglielmi K. M., Holm G. H., Johnson E. M., Maginnis M. S. other authors 2007; A plasmid-based reverse genetics system for animal double-stranded RNA viruses. Cell Host Microbe 1:147–157 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Komoto S., Sasaki J., Taniguchi K. 2006; Reverse genetics system for introduction of site-specific mutations into the double-stranded RNA genome of infectious rotavirus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103:4646–4651 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Laakkonen P., Hyvonen M., Peranen J., Kaariainen L. 1994; Expression of Semliki Forest virus nsP1-specific methyltransferase in insect cells and in Escherichia coli . J Virol 68:7418–7425
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Le Blois H., French T., Mertens P. P., Burroughs J. N., Roy P. 1992; The expressed VP4 protein of bluetongue virus binds GTP and is the candidate guanylyl transferase of the virus. Virology 189:757–761 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Lecatsas G. 1968; Electron microscopic study of the formation of bluetongue virus. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 35:139–149
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Li C., Xia Y., Gao X., Gershon P. D. 2004; Mechanism of RNA 2′-O-methylation: evidence that the catalytic lysine acts to steer rather than deprotonate the target nucleophile. Biochemistry 43:5680–5687 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Lin C., Kim J. L. 1999; Structure-based mutagenesis study of hepatitis C virus NS3 helicase. J Virol 73:8798–8807
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Lohman T. M., Thom K., Vale R. D. 1998; Staying on track: common features of DNA helicases and microtubule motors. Cell 93:9–12 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Loudon P. T., Roy P. 1991; Assembly of five bluetongue virus proteins expressed by recombinant baculoviruses: inclusion of the largest protein VP1 in the core and virus-like proteins. Virology 180:798–802 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Lymperopoulos K., Wirblich C., Brierley I., Roy P. 2003; Sequence specificity in the interaction of bluetongue virus non-structural protein 2 (NS2) with viral RNA. J Biol Chem 278:31722–31730 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Lymperopoulos K., Noad R., Tosi S., Nethisinghe S., Brierley I., Roy P. 2006; Specific binding of bluetongue virus NS2 to different viral plus-strand RNAs. Virology 353:17–26 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Makeyev E. V., Bamford D. H. 2000a; Replicase activity of purified recombinant protein P2 of double-stranded RNA bacteriophage Φ6. EMBO J 19:124–133 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Makeyev E. V., Bamford D. H. 2000b; The polymerase subunit of a dsRNA virus plays a central role in the regulation of viral RNA metabolism. EMBO J 19:6275–6284 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Makeyev E. V., Bamford D. H. 2001; Primer-independent RNA sequencing with bacteriophage Φ6 RNA polymerase and chain terminators. RNA 7:774–781 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Martin S. A., Moss B. 1976; mRNA guanylyltransferase and mRNA (guanine-7-)-methyltransferase from vaccinia virions. Donor and acceptor substrate specificites. J Biol Chem 251:7313–7321
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Martin S. A., Paoletti E., Moss B. 1975; Purification of mRNA guanylyltransferase and mRNA (guanine-7-) methyltransferase from vaccinia virions. J Biol Chem 250:9322–9329
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Martinez Costas J., Sutton G., Ramadevi N., Roy P. 1998; Guanylyltransferase and RNA 5′-triphosphatase activities of the purified expressed VP4 protein of bluetongue virus. J Mol Biol 280:859–866 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  80. McDougal V. V., Guarino L. A. 2001; DNA and ATP binding activities of the baculovirus DNA helicase P143. J Virol 75:7206–7209 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Mertens P. P., Brown F., Sangar D. V. 1984; Assignment of the genome segments of bluetongue virus type 1 to the proteins which they encode. Virology 135:207–217 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Mertens P. P., Burroughs J. N., Anderson J. 1987; Purification and properties of virus particles, infectious subviral particles, and cores of bluetongue virus serotypes 1 and 4. Virology 157:375–386 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Mertens P. P. C., Maan S., Samuel A., Attoui H. 2005; Orbivirus . In Virus Taxonomy , VIIIth Report of the ICTV . pp 466–483Edited by Fauquet C. M., Mayo M. A., Maniloff J., Desselberger U., Ball L. A. London: Elsevier/Academic Press;
  84. Mi S., Durbin R., Huang H. V., Rice C. M., Stollar V. 1989; Association of the Sindbis virus RNA methyltransferase activity with the nonstructural protein nsP1. Virology 170:385–391 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Modrof J., Lymperopoulos K., Roy P. 2005; Phosphorylation of bluetongue virus nonstructural protein 2 is essential for formation of viral inclusion bodies. J Virol 79:10023–10031 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Nason E. L., Rothnagel R., Muknerge S. K., Kar A. K., Forzan M., Prasad B. V. V., Roy P. 2004; Interactions between the inner and outer capsids of bluetongue virus. J Virol 78:8059–8067 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Ng K. K. S., Cherney M. M., Vázquez A. L., Machin A., Alonso J. M. M., Parra F., James M. N. G. 2002; Crystal structures of active and inactive conformations of a caliciviral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. J Biol Chem 277:1381–1387 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Nibert M. L., Schiff L. A., Fields B. N. 1991; Mammalian reoviruses contain a myristoylated structural protein. J Virol 65:1960–1967
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Noad R., Roy P. 2006; Bluetongue virus assembly and morphogenesis. In Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology pp 87–116Edited by Roy P. Berlin: Heidelberg; New York: Springer-Verlag;
    [Google Scholar]
  90. O'Reilly E. K., Kao C. C. 1998; Analysis of RNA-dependent RNA polymerase structure and function as guided by known polymerase structures and computer predictions of secondary structure. Virology 252:287–303 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Owens R. J., Limn C., Roy P. 2004; Role of an arbovirus nonstructural protein in cellular pathogenesis and virus release. J Virol 78:6649–6656 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Paolini C., De Francesco R., Gallinari P. 2000; Enzymatic properties of hepatitis C virus NS3-associated helicase. J Gen Virol 81:1335–1345
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Parker R., Song H. 2004; The enzymes and control of eukaryotic mRNA turnover. Nat Struct Mol Biol 11:121–127 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Patton J. T. 1996; Rotavirus VP1 alone specifically binds to the 3′ end of viral mRNA, but the interaction is not sufficient to initiate minus-strand synthesis. J Virol 70:7940–7947
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Patton J. T., Chen D. 1999; RNA-binding and capping activities of proteins in rotavirus open cores. J Virol 73:1382–1391
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Patton J. T., Jones M. T., Kalbach A. N., He Y. W., Xiaobo J. 1997; Rotavirus RNA polymerase requires the core shell protein to synthesize the double-stranded RNA genome. J Virol 71:9618–9626
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Pesavento J. B., Crawford S. E., Estes M. K., Prasad B. V. 2006; Rotavirus proteins: structure and assembly. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 309:189–219
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Piccininni S., Varaklioti A., Nardelli M., Dave B., Raney K. D., McCarthy J. E. 2002; Modulation of the hepatitis C virus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase activity by the non-structural (NS) 3 helicase and the NS4B membrane protein. J Biol Chem 277:45670–45679 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Prasad B. V. V., Yamaguchi S., Roy P. 1992; Three-dimensional structure of single-shelled bluetongue virus. J Virol 66:2135–2142
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Purse B. V., Mellor P. S., Rogers D. J., Samuel A. R., Mertens P. P., Baylis M. 2005; Climate change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe. Nat Rev Microbiol 3:171–181 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Ramadevi N., Rodriguez J., Roy P. 1998a; A leucine zipper-like domain is essential for dimerization and encapsidation of bluetongue virus nucleocapsid protein VP4. J Virol 72:2983–2990
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Ramadevi N., Burroughs J. N., Mertens P. P. C., Jones I. M., Roy P. 1998b; Capping and methylation of mRNA by purified recombinant VP4 protein of bluetongue virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95:13537–13542 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Reddy R., Singh R., Shimba S. 1992; Methylated cap structures in eukaryotic RNAs: structure, synthesis and functions. Pharmacol Ther 54:249–267 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Reinisch K. M., Nibert M. L., Harrison S. C. 2000; Structure of the reovirus core at 3.6 Å resolution. Nature 404:960–967 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Roner M. R., Joklik W. K. 2001; Reovirus reverse genetics: Incorporation of the CAT gene into the reovirus genome. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98:8036–8041 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Rottman F., Shatkin A. J., Perry R. P. 1974; Sequences containing methylated nucleotides at the 5′ termini of messenger RNAs: possible implications for processing. Cell 3:197–199 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Roy P. 1992; Bluetongue virus proteins. J Gen Virol 73:3051–3064 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Roy P. 1995; Orbiviruses and their replication. In Fields Virology , 3rd edn. pp 1709–1734Edited by Fields B. N. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven;
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Roy P. 2005; Bluetongue virus proteins and their role in virus entry, assembly and release. In Virus Structure and Assembly pp 69–114Edited by Roy P. USA: Elsevier Academic Press;
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Roy P. 2007; Orbiviruses. In Fields Virology . , 5th edn. pp 1975–1997Edited by Knipe D. M., Howley P. M., Griffin D. E., Lamb R. A., Martin M. A., Roizman B., Straus S. E. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins;
  111. Roy P., Fukusho A., Ritter G. D., Lyon D. 1988; Evidence for genetic relationship between RNA and DNA viruses from the sequence homology of a putative polymerase gene of bluetongue virus with that of vaccinia virus: conservation of RNA polymerase genes from diverse species. Nucleic Acids Res 16:11759–11767 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Roy P., Marshall J. J., French T. J. 1990a; Structure of the bluetongue virus genome and its encoded proteins. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 162:43–87
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Roy P., Adachi A., Urakawa T., Booth T. F., Thomas C. P. 1990b; Identification of bluetongue virus VP6 protein as a nucleic acid-binding protein and the localization of VP6 in virus-infected vertebrate cells. J Virol 64:1–8
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Sali A., Potterton L., Yuan F., van Vlijmen H., Karplus M. 1995; Evaluation of comparative protein modeling by modeller. Proteins 23:318–326 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Schmid S. R., Linder P. 1992; D-E-A-D protein family of putative RNA helicases. Mol Microbiol 6:283–291 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Sedman J., Stenlund A. 1998; The papillomavirus E1 protein forms a DNA-dependent hexameric complex with ATPase and DNA helicase activities. J Virol 72:6893–6897
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Shatkin A. J., Both G. W. 1976; Reovirus mRNA: transcription and translation. Cell 7:305–313 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Shi J., Blundell T. L., Mizuguchi K. 2001; fugue: sequence-structure homology recognition using environment-specific substitution tables and structure-dependent gap penalties. J Mol Biol 310:243–257 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Shirota Y., Luo H., Qin W., Kaneko S., Yamashita T., Kobayashi K., Murakami S. 2002; Hepatitis C virus (HCV) NS5A binds RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) NS5B and modulates RNA-dependent RNA polymerase activity. J Biol Chem 277:11149–11155 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Silverstein S. C., Schonberg M., Levin D. H., Acs G. 1970; The reovirus replicative cycle: conservation of parental RNA and protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 67:275–281 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Smee D. F., Sidwell R. W., Clark S. M., Barnett B. B., Spendlove R. S. 1981; Inhibition of bluetongue and Colorado tick fever orbiviruses by selected antiviral substances. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 20:533–538 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Starnes M. C., Joklik W. K. 1993; Reovirus protein λ 3 is a poly(C)-dependent poly(G)polymerase. Virology 193:356–366 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Stauber N., Martinez-Costas J., Sutton G., Monastyrskaya K., Roy P. 1997; Bluetongue virus VP6 protein binds ATP and exhibits an RNA-dependent ATPase function and a helicase activity that catalyze the unwinding of double-stranded RNA substrates. J Virol 71:7220–7226
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Stuart D. I., Grimes J. M. 2006; Structural studies on orbivirus proteins and particles. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 309:221–244
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Sutton G., Grimes J. M., Stuart D. I., Roy P. 2007; Bluetongue virus VP4 is an RNA-capping assembly line. Nat Struct Mol Biol 14:449–451 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Tai C. L., Pan W. C., Liaw S. H., Yang U. C., Hwang L. H., Chen D. S. 2001; Structure-based mutational analysis of the hepatitis C virus NS3 helicase. J Virol 75:8289–8297 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Tao Y., Farsetta D. L., Nibert M. L., Harrison S. C. 2002; RNA synthesis in a cage – structural studies of reovirus polymerase λ 3. Cell 111:733–745 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Thomas C. P., Booth T. F., Roy P. 1990; Synthesis of bluetongue virus-encoded phosphoprotein and formation of inclusion bodies by recombinant baculovirus in insect cells: it binds the single-stranded RNA species. J Gen Virol 71:2073–2083 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Tortorici M. A., Broering T. J., Nibert M. L., Patton J. T. 2003; Template recognition and formation of initiation complexes by the replicase of a segmented double-stranded RNA virus. J Biol Chem 278:32673–32682 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Urakawa T., Roy P. 1988; Bluetongue virus tubules made in insect cells by recombinant baculoviruses: expression of the NS1 gene of bluetongue virus serotype 10. J Virol 62:3919–3927
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Urakawa T., Ferguson M., Minor P. D., Cooper J., Sullivan M., Almond J. W., Bishop D. H. 1989; Synthesis of immunogenic, but non-infectious, poliovirus particles in insect cells by a baculovirus expression vector. J Gen Virol 70:1453–1463 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Urushibara T., Furuichi Y., Nishimura C., Miura K. 1975; A modified structure at the 5′-terminus of mRNA of vaccinia virus. FEBS Lett 49:385–389 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Van Dijk A. A., Huismans H. 1980; The in vitro activation and further characterization of the bluetongue virus-associated transcriptase. Virology 104:347–356 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Van Dijk A. A., Huismans H. 1982; The effect of temperature on the in vitro transcriptase reaction of bluetongue virus, epizootic haemorrhagic disease virus and African horsesickness virus. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 49:227–232
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Van Dijk A. A., Huismans H. 1988; In vitro transcription and translation of bluetongue virus mRNA. J Gen Virol 69:573–581 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Venkatesan S., Gershowitz A., Moss B. 1980; Modification of the 5′ end of mRNA. Association of RNA triphosphatase with the RNA guanylyltransferase-RNA (guanine-7-)methyltransferase complex from vaccinia virus. J Biol Chem 255:903–908
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Verwoerd D. W., Huismans H. 1972; Studies on the in vitro and the in vivo transcription of the bluetongue virus genome. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 39:185–191
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Verwoerd D. W., Louw H., Oellermann R. A. 1970; Characterization of bluetongue virus ribonucleic acid. J Virol 5:1–7
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Verwoerd D. W., Els H. J., De Villiers E. M., Huismans H. 1972; Structure of the bluetongue virus capsid. J Virol 10:783–794
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Wehrfritz J. M., Boyce M., Mirza S., Roy P. 2007; Reconstitution of bluetongue virus polymerase activity from isolated domains based on a three-dimensional structural model. Biopolymers 86:83–94 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Wei C. M., Gershowitz A., Moss B. 1975; Methylated nucleotides block 5′ terminus of HeLa cell messenger RNA. Cell 4:379–386 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  142. White P. W., Pelletier A., Brault K., Titolo S., Welchner E., Thauvette L., Fazekas M., Cordingley M. G., Archambault J. 2001; Characterization of recombinant HPV6 and 11 E1 helicases: effect of ATP on the interaction of E1 with E2 and mapping of a minimal helicase domain. J Biol Chem 276:22426–22438 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  143. Wirblich C., Bhattacharya B., Roy P. 2006; Nonstructural protein 3 of bluetongue virus assists virus release by recruiting ESCRT-I protein Tsg101. J Virol 80:460–473 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  144. Wu X., Chen S. Y., Iwata H., Compans R. W., Roy P. 1992; Multiple glycoproteins synthesized by the smallest RNA segment (S10) of bluetongue virus. J Virol 66:7104–7112
    [Google Scholar]
  145. Zhang X., Walker S. B., Chipman P. R., Nibert M. L., Baker T. S. 2003; Reovirus polymerase λ 3 localized by cryo-electron microscopy of virions at a resolution of 7.6 Å. Nat Struct Biol 10:1011–1018 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  146. Zhang X., Tang J., Walker S. B., O'Hara D., Nibert M. L., Duncan R., Baker T. S. 2005; Structure of avian orthoreovirus virion by electron cryomicroscopy and image reconstruction. Virology 343:25–35 [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
http://instance.metastore.ingenta.com/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/vir.0.2008/002089-0
Loading
/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/vir.0.2008/002089-0
Loading

Data & Media loading...

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error