1887

Journal of General Virology header logo

Volume 92, Issue 2

The GB viruses: a review and proposed classification of GBV-A, GBV-C (HGV), and GBV-D in genus within the family Open Access

Abstract

In 1967, it was reported that experimental inoculation of serum from a surgeon (G.B.) with acute hepatitis into tamarins resulted in hepatitis. In 1995, two new members of the family , named GBV-A and GBV-B, were identified in tamarins that developed hepatitis following inoculation with the 11th GB passage. Neither virus infects humans, and a number of GBV-A variants were identified in wild New World monkeys that were captured. Subsequently, a related human virus was identified [named GBV-C or hepatitis G virus (HGV)], and recently a more distantly related virus (named GBV-D) was discovered in bats. Only GBV-B, a second species within the genus (type species hepatitis C virus), has been shown to cause hepatitis; it causes acute hepatitis in experimentally infected tamarins. The other GB viruses have however not been assigned to a genus within the family . Based on phylogenetic relationships, genome organization and pathogenic features of the GB viruses, we propose to classify GBV-A-like viruses, GBV-C and GBV-D as members of a fourth genus in the family , named (pe, persistent; g, GB or G). We also propose renaming ‘GB’ viruses within the tentative genus to reflect their host origin.

  • Published Online:
© SGM
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/vir.0.027490-0
2011-02-01
2023-03-20
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/jgv/92/2/233.html?itemId=/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/vir.0.027490-0&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

References

  1. Adams, N. J., Prescott, L. E., Jarvis, L. M., Lewis, J. C. M., McClure, M. O., Smith, D. B. & Simmonds, P.(1998). Detection in chimpanzees of a novel flavivirus related to GB virus-C/hepatitis G virus. J Gen Virol 79, 1871–1877. [Google Scholar]
  2. Agnello, V., Abel, G., Elfahal, M., Knight, G. B. & Zhang, X.(1999). Hepatitis C virus and other flaviviridae viruses enter cells via low density lipoprotein receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96, 12766–12771.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  3. Alter, H. J.(1997). G-pers creepers, where'd you get those papers? A reassessment of the literature on the hepatitis G virus. Transfusion 37, 569–572.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  4. Alter, H. J., Nakatsuji, Y., Melpolder, J., Wages, J., Wesley, R., Shih, J. W.-K. & Kim, J. P.(1997a). The incidence of transfusion-associated hepatitis G virus infection and its relation to liver disease. N Engl J Med 336, 747–754.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  5. Alter, M. J., Gallagher, M., Morris, T. T., Moyer, L. A., Meeks, E. L., Krawczynski, K., Kim, J. P. & Margolis, H. S.(1997b). Acute non-A–E hepatitis in the United States and the role of hepatitis G virus infection. N Engl J Med 336, 741–746.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  6. Bakhshesh, M., Groppelli, E., Willcocks, M. M., Royall, E., Belsham, G. J. & Roberts, L. O.(2008). The picornavirus avian encephalomyelitis virus possesses a hepatitis C virus-like internal ribosome entry site element. J Virol 82, 1993–2003.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  7. Barnes, A., Allen, J. B., Klinzman, D., Zhang, W., Chaloner, K. & Stapleton, J. T.(2007). GBV-C persistence does not require CD4+ T cell preservation, and GBV-C viral load (VL) is weakly inversely related to HIV VL. 4th IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment and Prevention. Sydney, Australia.
  8. Baumert, T. F., Welinitz, S., Aono, S., Satol, J., Herion, D., Tilman, J., Gerlach, R., Pape, G. R., Lau, J. Y. & other authors(2000). Antibodies against hepatitis C virus-like particles and viral clearance in acute and chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 32, 610–617.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  9. Beames, B., Chavez, D., Guerra, B., Notvall, L., Brasky, K. M. & Lanford, R. E.(2000). Development of a primary tamarin hepatocyte culture system for GB virus-B: a surrogate model for hepatitis C virus. J Virol 74, 11764–11772.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  10. Beames, B., Chavez, D. & Lanford, R. E.(2001). GB virus B as a model for hepatitis C virus. ILAR J 42, 152–160.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  11. Berg, T., Muller, A. R., Platz, K. P., Hohne, M., Bechstein, W. O., Hopf, U., Wiedenmann, B., Neuhaus, P. & Schreier, E.(1999). Dynamics of GB virus C viremia early after orthotopic liver transplantation indicates extrahepatic tissues as the predominant site of GB virus C replication. Hepatology 29, 245–249.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  12. Birkenmeyer, L. G., Desai, S. M., Muerhoff, A. S., Leary, T. P., Simons, J. N., Montes, C. C. & Mushahwar, I. K.(1998). Isolation of a GB virus-related genome from a chimpanzee. J Med Virol 56, 44–51.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  13. Blair, C. S., Davidson, F., Lycett, C., McDonald, D. M., Haydon, G. H., Yap, P. L., Hayes, P. C., Simmonds, P. & Gillon, J.(1998). Prevalence, incidence, and clinical characteristics of hepatitis G virus/GB virus C infection in Scottish blood donors. J Infect Dis 178, 1779–1782.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  14. Bradley, D. W.(2000). Studies of non-A, non-B hepatitis and characterization of the hepatitis C virus in chimpanzees. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 242, 1–23. [Google Scholar]
  15. Bradley, D. W., Maynard, J. E., Popper, H., Cook, E. H., Ebert, J. W., McCaustland, K. A., Schable, C. A. & Fields, H. A.(1983). Post-transfusion non-A, non-B hepatitis: physicochemical properties of two distinct agents. J Infect Dis 148, 254–265.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  16. Bright, H., Carroll, A. R., Watts, P. A. & Fenton, R. J.(2004). Development of a GB virus B marmoset model and its validation with a novel series of hepatitis C virus NS3 protease inhibitors. J Virol 78, 2062–2071.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  17. Bukh, J. & Apgar, C. L.(1997). Five new or recently discovered (GBV-A) virus species are indigenous to New World monkeys and may constitute a separate genus of the Flaviviridae. Virology 229, 429–436.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  18. Bukh, J., Kim, J. P., Govindarajan, S., Apgar, C. L., Foung, S. K., Wages, J., Jr, Yun, A. J., Shapiro, M. & Purcell, R. H.(1998). Experimental infection of chimpanzees with hepatitis G virus and genetic analysis of the virus. J Infect Dis 177, 855–862.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  19. Bukh, J., Apgar, C. L. & Yanagi, M.(1999). Toward a surrogate model for hepatitis C virus: an infectious molecular clone of the GB Virus-B hepatitis agent. Virology 262, 470–478.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  20. Bukh, J., Apgar, C. L., Govindarajan, S. & Purcell, R. H.(2001a). Host range studies of GB virus-B hepatitis agent, the closest relative of hepatitis C virus, in New World monkeys and chimpanzees. J Med Virol 65, 694–697.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  21. Bukh, J., Apgar, C. L., Govindarajan, S., Emerson, S. U. & Purcell, R. H.(2001b). Failure to infect rhesus monkeys with hepatitis C virus strains of genotypes 1a, 2a or 3a. J Viral Hepat 8, 228–231.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  22. Bukh, J., Engle, R. E., Govindarajan, S. & Purcell, R. H.(2008). Immunity against the GBV-B hepatitis virus in tamarins can prevent productive infection following rechallenge and is long-lived. J Med Virol 80, 87–94.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  23. Cheng, Y., Zhang, W. Z., Li, J., Li, B., Zhao, J., Gao, R., Xin, S., Mao, P. & Cao, Y.(2000). Serological and histological findings in infection and transmission of GBV-C/HGV to macques. J Med Virol 60, 28–33.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  24. Choo, Q. L., Kuo, G., Weiner, A., Overby, L., Bradley, D. W. & Houghton, M.(1989). Isolation of a cDNA derived from a blood-borne non-A, non-B viral hepatitis genome. Science 244, 359–362.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  25. Choo, Q.-L., Richman, K. H., Han, J. H., Berger, K., Lee, C., Dong, C., Gallegos, C., Coit, D., Medina-Selby, A. & other authors(1991). Genetic organization and diversity of the hepatitis C virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 88, 2451–2455.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  26. Deinhardt, F. & Deinhardt, J. B.(1984). Animal models. In Hepatitis A, 1st edn, pp. 185–204. Edited by Gerety, R. J.. London. : Academic Press. [Google Scholar]
  27. Deinhardt, F., Holmes, A. W., Capps, R. B. & Popper, H.(1967). Studies on the transmission of human viral hepatitis to marmoset monkeys. I. Transmission of disease, serial passages, and description of liver lesions. J Exp Med 125, 673–688.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  28. Dorrucci, M., Pezzotti, P., Phillips, A. N., Lepri, A. C. & Rezza, G.(1995). Coinfection of hepatitis C virus with human immunodeficiency virus and progression to AIDS. Italian Seroconversion Study. J Infect Dis 172, 1503–1508.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  29. Epstein, J. H., Quan, P. L., Briese, T., Street, C., Jabado, O., Conlan, S., Ali, K. S., Verdugo, D., Hossain, M. J. & other authors. (2010). Identification of GBV-D, a novel GB-like flavivirus from old world frugivorous bats (Pteropus giganteus) in Bangladesh. PLoS Pathog 6, e1000972.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  30. Farci, P., Alter, H. J., Govindarajan, S., Wong, D., Engle, R., Lesniewski, R. R., Mushawar, I. K., Desai, S. M., Miller, R. H. & other authors(1992a). Lack of protective immunity against reinfection with hepatitis C virus. Science 258, 135–140.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  31. Farci, P., London, W. T., Wong, D. C., Dawson, G. J., Vallari, D. S., Engle, R. & Purcell, R. H.(1992b). The natural history of infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) in chimpanzees: comparison of serologic responses measured with first- and second- generation assays and relationship to HCV viremia. J Infect Dis 165, 1006–1011.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  32. Farci, P., Alter, H. J., Wong, D., Miller, R. H., Govindarajan, S., Engle, R. & Shapiro, M.(1994). Prevention of hepatitis C virus infection in chimpanzees after antibody-mediated in vitro neutralization. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91, 7792–7796.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  33. Feinstone, S. M. & Purcell, R. H.(1978). Non-A, non-B hepatitis. Annu Rev Med 29, 359–366.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  34. Feinstone, S. M., Kapikian, A. Z., Purcell, R., Alter, H. J. & Holland, P. V.(1975). Transfusion associated hepatitis not due to viral hepatitis A or B. N Engl J Med 292, 767–770.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  35. Fernandez-Vidal, M., Cubero, M. D., Ercilla, G., Gomara, M. J. & Haro, I.(2007). Application of a chimeric synthetic peptide in the development of a serologic method for the diagnosis of hepatitis G virus infection. Protein Pept Lett 14, 865–870.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  36. Fogeda, M., Navas, S., Martin, J., Casqueiro, M., Rodriguez, E., Arocena, C. & Carreno, V.(1999).In vitro infection of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells by GB virus C/hepatitis G virus. J Virol 73, 4052–4061. [Google Scholar]
  37. Fong, T. L., Shindo, M., Feinstone, S. M., Hoofnagle, J. & DiBisceglie, A. M.(1991). Detection of replicative intermediates of hepatitis C viral RNA in liver and serum of patients with chronic hepatitis C. J Clin Invest 88, 1058–1060.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  38. George, S. L., Xiang, J. & Stapleton, J. T.(2003). Clinical isolates of GB virus type C vary in their ability to persist and replicate in peripheral blood mononuclear cell cultures. Virology 316, 191–201.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  39. George, S. L., Varmaz, D. & Stapleton, J. T.(2006). GB virus C replicates in primary T and B lymphocytes. J Infect Dis 193, 451–454.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  40. Gomara, M. J., Fernandez, L., Perez, T., Ercilla, G. & Haro, I.(2010). Assessment of synthetic chimeric multiple antigenic peptides for diagnosis of GB virus C infection. Anal Biochem 396, 51–58.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  41. Gorbalenya, A. E. & Koonin, E. V.(1989). Virus proteins containing the purine NTP-binding pattern. Nucleic Acids Res 17, 8413–8440.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  42. Gust, I. D. & Feinstone, S. M.(1988).Hepatitis A. Boca Raton, Florida. : CRC Press, Inc. [Google Scholar]
  43. Gutierrez, R. A., Dawson, G. J., Knigge, M. F., Melvin, S. L., Heynen, C. A., Kyrk, C. R., Young, C. E., Carrick, R. J., Schlauder, G. G. & other authors(1997). Seroprevalance of GB virus C and persistence of RNA and antibody. J Med Virol 53, 167–173.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  44. Heringlake, S., Ockenga, J., Tillmann, H. L., Trautwein, C., Meissner, D., Stoll, M., Hunt, J., Jou, C., Solomon, N. & other authors(1998). GB virus C/hepatitis G virus infection: a favorable prognostic factor in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients? J Infect Dis 177, 1723–1726.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  45. Hijikata, M., Shimizu, Y. K., Kato, H., Iwamoto, A., Shih, J. W., Alter, H. J. & Purcell, R. H.(1993). Equilibrium centrifugation studies of hepatitis C virus: evidence for circulating immune complexes. J Virol 67, 1953–1958. [Google Scholar]
  46. Hoofnagle, J. H.(1997). Hepatitis C: the clinical spectrum of disease. Hepatology 26, 15S–20S.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  47. Ishii, K., Iijima, S., Kimura, N., Lee, Y.-J., Ageyama, N., Yagi, S., Yamaguchi, K., Maki, N., Mori, K.-I. & other authors(2007). GBV-B as a pleiotropic virus: distribution of GBV-B in extrahepatic tissues in vivo.Microbes Infect 9, 515–521.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  48. Jacob, J. R., Lin, K. C., Tennant, B. C. & Mansfield, K. G.(2004). GB virus B infection of the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) and associated liver pathology. J Gen Virol 85, 2525–2533.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  49. Keck, Z. Y., Sung, V. M., Perkins, S., Rowe, J., Paul, S., Liang, T. J., Lai, M. M. & Foung, S. K.(2004). Human monoclonal antibody to hepatitis C virus E1 glycoprotein that blocks virus attachment and viral infectivity. J Virol 78, 7257–7263.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  50. Kieft, J. S.(2008). Viral IRES RNA structures and ribosome interactions. Trends Biochem Sci 33, 274–283.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  51. Kim, J. P. & Fry, K. E.(1997). Molecular characterization of the hepatitis G virus. J Viral Hepat 4, 77–79.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  52. Kobayashi, M., Tanaka, E., Nakayama, J., Furuwatari, C., Katsuyama, T., Kawasaki, S. & Kiyosawa, K.(1999). Detection of GB virus-C/hepatitis G virus genome in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and liver tissue. J Med Virol 57, 114–121.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  53. Kolykhalov, A. A., Agapov, E. V., Blight, K. J., Mihalik, K., Feinstone, S. M. & Rice, C. M.(1997). Transmission of hepatitis C by intrahepatic inoculation with transcribed RNA. Science 277, 570–574.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  54. Koonin, E. V.(1991). The phylogeny of RNA-dependent RNA polymerases of positive-strand RNA viruses. J Gen Virol 72, 2197–2206.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  55. Koonin, E. V. & Dolja, V. V.(1993). Evolution and taxonomy of positive-strand RNA viruses: implications of comparative analysis of amino acid sequences. Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 28, 375–430.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  56. Krawczynski, K.(1997). Novel hepatitis agents: the significance of clinical and experimental studies. An overview. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 12, S193–S194.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  57. Kuo, G., Choo, Q. L. & Alter, H. J.(1989). An assay for circulating antibodies to a major etiologic virus of human non-A, non-B hepatitis. Science 244, 362–364.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  58. Lanford, R. E., Sureau, C., Jacob, J. R., White, R. & Fuerst, T. R.(1994). Demonstration of in vitro infection of chimpanzee hepatocytes with hepatitis C virus using strand-specific RT/PCR. Virology 202, 606–614.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  59. Lanford, R. E., Chavez, D., Guerra, B., Lau, J. Y., Hong, Z., Brasky, K. M. & Beames, B.(2001). Ribavirin induces error-prone replication of GB virus B in primary tamarin hepatocytes. J Virol 75, 8074–8081.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  60. Lanford, R. E., Chavez, D., Notvall, L. & Brasky, K. M.(2003). Comparison of tamarins and marmosets as hosts for GBV-B infection and the effect of immunosuppression on duration of viremia. Virology 311, 72–80.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  61. Laskus, T., Radkowski, M., Wang, L.-F., Vargas, H. & Rakela, J.(1997a). Lack of evidence for hepatitis G virus replication in the livers of patients coinfected with hepatitis C virus and G virus. J Virol 71, 7804–7806. [Google Scholar]
  62. Laskus, T., Radkowski, M., Wang, L. F., Cianciara, J., Vargas, H. & Rakela, J.(1997b). Hepatitis C virus negative strand RNA is not detected in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and viral sequences are identical to those in serum: a case against extrahepatic replication. J Gen Virol 78, 2747–2750. [Google Scholar]
  63. Laskus, T., Radkowski, M., Wang, L. F., Vargas, H. & Rakela, J.(1998). Detection of hepatitis G virus replication sites by using highly strand-specific Tth-based reverse transcriptase PCR. J Virol 72, 3072–3075. [Google Scholar]
  64. Lauer, G. M. & Walker, B. D.(2001). Hepatitis C virus infection. N Engl J Med 345, 41–52.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  65. Leary, T. P., Desai, S. M., Yamaguchi, J., Chalmers, M. J., Schlauder, G. G., Dawson, G. J. & Mushahwar, I. K.(1996a). Species-specific variants of GB virus A in captive monkeys. J Virol 70, 9028–9030. [Google Scholar]
  66. Leary, T. P., Muerhoff, A. S., Simons, J. N., Pilot-Matias, T. J., Erker, J. C., Chalmers, M. L., Schlauder, G. G., Dawson, G. J., Desai, S. M. & Mushahwar, I. K.(1996b). Sequence and genomic organization of GBV-C: a novel member of the Flaviviridae associated with human non-A-E hepatitis. J Med Virol 48, 60–67.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  67. Lindenbach, B. D. & Rice, C. M.(2005b). Unravelling hepatitis C virus replication from genome to function. Nature 436, 933–938.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  68. Lindenbach, B. D., Evans, M. J., Syder, A. J., Wolk, B., Tellinghuisen, T. L., Liu, C. C., Maruyama, T., Hynes, R. O., Burton, D. R. & other authors(2005a). Complete replication of hepatitis C virus in cell culture. Science 309, 623–626.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  69. Lindenbach, B. D., Meuleman, P., Ploss, A., Vanwolleghem, T., Syder, A. J., McKeating, J. A., Lanford, R. E., Feinstone, S. M., Major, M. E. & other authors(2006). Cell culture-grown hepatitis C virus is infectious in vivo and can be recultured in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103, 3805–3809.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  70. Linnen, J., Wages, J., Zhang-Keck, Z.-Y., Fry, K. E., Krawczynski, K. Z., Alter, H., Koonin, E., Gallagher, M., Alter, M. & other authors(1996). Molecular cloning and disease association of hepatitis G virus: a transfusion-transmissible agent. Science 271, 505–508.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  71. Majerowicz, S., Grief, C., Ferguson, D., Airano, R. C., Baptista, M. L., Pinto, M. A. & Barth, O. M.(2004).In situ hybridization of hepatitis C virus RNA in liver cells of an experimentally infected rhesus macaque. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 99, 629–631.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  72. Major, M. E. & Feinstone, S. M.(1997). The molecular virology of hepatitis C. Hepatology 25, 1527–1538.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  73. Martin, A., Bodola, F., Sangar, D. V., Goettge, K., Popov, V., Rijnbrand, R., Lanford, R. E. & Lemon, S. M.(2003). Chronic hepatitis associated with GB virus B persistence in a tamarin after intrahepatic inoculation of synthetic viral RNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100, 9962–9967.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  74. McLinden, J. H., Kaufman, T. M., Xiang, J., Chang, Q., Klinzman, D., Engel, A. M., Hess, G., Schmidt, U., Houghton, M. & Stapleton, J. T.(2006). Characterization of an immunodominant antigenic site on GB virus C glycoprotein E2 that is involved in cell binding. J Virol 80, 12131–12140.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  75. Melvin, S. L., Dawson, G. J., Carrick, R. J., Schlauder, G. G., Heynen, C. A. & Mushahwar, I. K.(1998). Biophysical characterization of GB virus C from human plasma. J Virol Methods 71, 147–157.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  76. Mohr, E. L. & Stapleton, J. T.(2009). GB virus type C interactions with HIV: the role of envelope glycoproteins. J Viral Hepat 16, 757–768.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  77. Mohr, E. L., Murthy, K. K., McLinden, J. H., Xiang, J. & Stapleton, J. T.(2010). The natural history of nonhuman GB virus C in captive chimpanzees. J Gen Virol (in press). [Google Scholar]
  78. Monazahian, M., Bohme, I., Bonk, S., Koch, A., Scholz, C., Grethe, S. & Thomssen, R.(1999). Low density lipoprotein receptor as a candidate receptor for hepatitis C virus. J Med Virol 57, 223–229.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  79. Monazahian, M., Kippenberger, S., Mueller, A., Seitz, H., Bohme, I., Grethe, S. & Thomssen, R.(2000). Binding of human lipoproteins (low, very low, high density lipoproteins) to recombinant envelope proteins of hepatitis C virus. Med Microbiol Immunol (Berl) 188, 177–184.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  80. Moradpour, D., Penin, F. & Rice, C. M.(2007). Replication of hepatitis C virus. Nat Rev Microbiol 5, 453–463.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  81. Muerhoff, A. S., Leary, T. P., Simons, J. N., Pilot-Matias, T. J., Dawson, G. J., Erker, J. C., Chalmers, M. L., Schlauder, G. G., Desai, S. M. & Mushahwar, I. K.(1995). Genomic organization of GB viruses A and B: two new members of the Flaviviridae associated with GB agent hepatitis. J Virol 69, 5621–5630. [Google Scholar]
  82. Nakatsuji, Y., Matsumot, A., Tanaka, E., Ogata, H. & Kiyosawa, K.(1992). Detection of chronic hepatitis C virus infection by four diagnostic systems: first-generation and second-generation enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, second-generation recombinant immunoblot assay and nested polymerase chain reaction analysis. Hepatology 16, 300–305.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  83. Nam, J. H., Fauk, K., Engle, R. E., Govindarajan, S., St.Claire, M. & Bukh, J.(2004).In vivo analysis of the 3′ untranslated region of GB virus B after in vitro mutagenesis of an infectious cDNA clone: persistent infection in a transfected tamarin. J Virol 78, 9389–9399.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  84. Owsianka, A. M., Tarr, A. W., Keck, Z. Y., Li, T. K., Witteveldt, J., Adair, R., Foung, S. K., Ball, J. K. & Patel, A. H.(2008). Broadly neutralizing human monoclonal antibodies to the hepatitis C virus E2 glycoprotein. J Gen Virol 89, 653–659.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  85. Pessoa, M. G., Terrault, N. A., Detmer, J., Kolberg, J., Colllins, M., Hassoba, H. M. & Wright, T. L.(1998). Quantitation of hepatitis G and C viruses in the liver: evidence that hepatitis G virus is not hepatotropic. Hepatology 27, 877–880.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  86. Pilot-Matias, T. J., Carrick, R. J., Coleman, P. F., Leary, T. P., Surowy, T. K., Simons, J. N., Muerhoff, A. S., Buijk, S. L., Chalmers, M. L. & other authors(1996a). Expression of the GB virus C E2 glycoprotein using the Semliki Forest virus vector system and its utility as a serologic marker. Virology 225, 282–292.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  87. Pilot-Matias, T. J., Muerhoff, A. S., Simons, J. N., Leary, T. P., Buijk, S. L., Chalmers, M. L., Erker, J. C., Dawson, G. J., Desai, S. M. & Mushawar, I. K.(1996b). Identification of antigenic regions in the GB hepatitis viruses GBV-A, GBV-B, and GBV-C. J Med Virol 48, 329–338.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  88. Polgreen, P. M., Xiang, J., Chang, Q. & Stapleton, J. T.(2003). GB virus type C/hepatitis G virus: a nonpathogenic flavivirus associated with prolonged survival in HIV-infected individuals. Microbes Infect 5, 1255–1261.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  89. Prince, A. M., Brotman, B., Grady, G. F., Kuhns, W. J., Hazzi, C., Levine, R. W. & Milan, S. J.(1974). Long-incubation post-transfusion hepatitis without serological evidence of exposure to hepatitis-B virus. Lancet 2, 241–246. [Google Scholar]
  90. Radkowski, M., Wang, L. F., Cianciara, J., Rakela, J. & Laskus, T.(1999). Analysis of hepatitis G virus/GB virus C quasispecies and replication sites in human subjects. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 258, 296–299.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  91. Radkowski, M., Kubicka, J., Kisiel, E., Cianciara, J., Nowicki, M., Rakela, J. & Laskus, T.(2000). Detection of active hepatits C virus and hepatits G virus/GB virus C replication in bone marrow in human subjects. Blood 95, 3986–3989. [Google Scholar]
  92. Ren, H., Zhu, F. L., Cao, M. M., Wen, X. Y., Zhao, P. & Qi, Z. T.(2005). Hepatitis G virus genomic RNA is pathogenic to Macaca mulatta. World J Gastroenterol 11, 970–975.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  93. Robertson, B. H.(2001). Viral hepatitis and primates: historical and molecular analysis of human and nonhuman primate hepatitis A, B, and the GB-related viruses. J Viral Hepat 8, 233–242.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  94. Sakai, A., Claire, M. S., Faulk, K., Govindarajan, S., Emerson, S. U., Purcell, R. H. & Bukh, J.(2003). The p7 polypeptide of hepatitis C virus is critical for infectivity and contains functionally important genotype-specific sequences. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100, 11646–11651.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  95. Sathar, M. A., Soni, P. N., Pegoraro, R., Simmonds, P., Smith, D. B., Dhillon, A. P. & Dusheiko, G.(1999). A new variant of GB virus C/hepatitis G virus (GBV-HGV) from South Africa. Virus Res 64, 151–160.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  96. Sbardellati, A., Scarselli, E., Verschoor, E., De Tomassi, A., Lazzaro, D. & Traboni, C.(2001). Generation of infectious and transmissible virions from a GB virus B full-length consensus clone in tamarins. J Gen Virol 82, 2437–2448. [Google Scholar]
  97. Scallan, M. F., Clutterbuck, D., Jarvis, L. M., Scott, G. R. & Simmonds, P.(1998). Sexual transmission of GB virus C/hepatitis G virus. J Med Virol 55, 203–208.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  98. Schaluder, G. G., Dawson, G. J., Simons, J. N., Pilot-Matias, T. J., Gutierrez, R. A., Heynen, C. A., Knigge, M. F., Kurpiewski, G. S., Buijk, S. L. & Leary, T. P.(1995). Molecular and serologic analysis in the transmission of the GB hepatitis agents. J Med Virol 46, 81–90.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  99. Schlauder, G. G., Pilot-Matias, T. J., Gabriel, G. S., Simons, J. N., Muerhoff, A. S., Dawson, G. J. & Mushawar, I. K.(1995). Origin of GB-hepatitis viruses. Lancet 346, 447–448. [Google Scholar]
  100. Schwarze-Zander, C., Blackard, J. T., Zheng, H., Addo, M. M., Lin, W., Robbins, G. K., Sherman, K. E., Zdunek, D., Hess, G. & other authors(2006). GB virus C (GBV-C) infection in hepatitis C virus (HCV)/HIV-coinfected patients receiving HCV treatment: importance of the GBV-C genotype. J Infect Dis 194, 410–419.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  101. Shimizu, Y. K., Weiner, A. J., Rosenblatt, J., Wong, D. C., Shapiro, M., Popkin, T., Houghton, M., Alter, H. J. & Purcell, R. H.(1990). Early events in hepatitis C virus infection of chimpanzees. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 87, 6441–6444.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  102. Simons, J. N., Leary, T. P., Dawson, G. J., Pilot-Matias, T. J., Muerhoff, A. S., Schlauder, G. G., Desai, S. M. & Mushahwar, I. K.(1995a). Isolation of novel virus-like sequences associated with human hepatitis. Nat Med 1, 564–569.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  103. Simons, J. N., Pilot-Matias, T. J., Leary, T. P., Dawson, G. J., Desai, G. J., Desai, S. M., Schlauder, G. G., Muerhoff, A. S., Erker, J. C. & other authors(1995b). Identification of two flavivirus-like genomes in the GB hepatitis agent. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 92, 3401–3405.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  104. Simons, J. N., Desai, S. M., Schultz, D. E., Lemon, S. M. & Mushahwar, I. K.(1996). Translation initiation in GB viruses A and C: evidence for internal ribosome entry and implications for genomic organization. J Virol 70, 6126–6135. [Google Scholar]
  105. Simons, J. N., Desai, S. M. & Mushahwar, I. K.(2000). The GB viruses. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 242, 341–375. [Google Scholar]
  106. Smith, D. B., Simmonds, P., Frost, S., Haydon, D., Cuceanu, N., Prescott, L., Kamenka, C., Millband, D., Sathar, M. A. & Simmonds, P.(2000). Phylogenetic analysis of GBV-C/hepatitis G virus. J Gen Virol 81, 769–780. [Google Scholar]
  107. Stapleton, J. T.(2003). GB virus type C/hepatitis G virus. Semin Liver Dis 23, 137–148.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  108. Tabor, E., Seeff, L. B. & Gerety, R. J.(1979). Lack of susceptibility of marmosets to human non-A, non-B hepatitis. J Infect Dis 140, 794–797.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  109. Tabor, E., Peterson, D. A., April, M., Seeff, L. B. & Gerety, R. J.(1980). Transmission of human non-A, non-B hepatitis to chimpanzees following failure to transmit GB agent hepatitis. J Med Virol 5, 103–108. [Google Scholar]
  110. Tacke, M., Schmolke, S., Schlueter, V., Sauleda, S., Esteban, J. I., Tanaka, E., Kiyosawa, K., Alter, H. J., Schmitt, U. & other authors(1997). Humoral immune response to the E2 protein of hepatitis G virus is associated with long-term recovery from infection and reveals a high frequency of hepatitis G virus exposure among healthy blood donors. Hepatology 26, 1626–1633.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  111. Takaki, A., Wiese, M., Maertens, G., Depla, E., Seifert, U., Liebetrau, A., Miller, J. L., Manns, M. P. & Rehermann, B.(2000). Cellular immune responses persist and humoral responses decrease two decades after recovery from a single-source outbreak of hepatitis C. Nat Med 6, 578–582.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  112. Takikawa, S., Engle, R. E., Emerson, S. U., Purcell, R. H., St Claire, M. & Bukh, J.(2006). Functional analyses of GB virus B p13 protein: development of a recombinant GB virus B hepatitis virus with a p7 protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103, 3345–3350.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  113. Tan, D., Matsumoto, A., Conry-Cantilena, C., Melpolder, J. C., Shih, J. W., Leuther, M., Hess, G., Gibble, J. W., Ness, P. M. & Alter, H. J.(1999). Analysis of hepatitis G virus (HGV) RNA, antibody to HGV envelope protein, and risk factors for blood donors coinfected with HGV and hepatitis C virus. J Infect Dis 179, 1055–1061.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  114. Tanaka, E., Kiyosawa, K., Shimoda, K., Hino, K., Tacke, M., Schmolke, S., Engel, A. M. & Hess, G.(1998). Evolution of hepatitis G virus infection and antibody response to envelope protein in patients with transfusion-associated non-A, non-B hepatitis. J Viral Hepat 5, 153–159.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  115. The Global Burden of Disease Working Group(2004). The global burden of disease of hepatitis C. J Clin Pharmacol 44, 20–29.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  116. Theodore, D. & Lemon, S. M.(1997). GB Virus C, hepatitis G virus, or human orphan flavivirus? Hepatology 25, 1285–1286.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  117. Thiel, H.-J., Collett, M. S., Gould, E. A., Heinz, F. X., Houghton, M., Meyers, G., Purcell, R. H. & Rice, C. M.(2005).Virus Taxonomy: Eighth report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. London. : Elsevier Academic Press. [Google Scholar]
  118. Thomssen, R., Bonk, S., Propfe, C., Heermann, K. H., Kochel, H. G. & Uy, A.(1992). Association of hepatitis C virus in human sera with beta-lipoproteins. Med Microbiol Immunol (Berl) 181, 293–300.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  119. Thomssen, R., Bonk, S. & Thiele, A.(1993). Density heterogeneities of hepatitis C virus in human sera due to binding of beta-lipoproteins and immunoglobulins. Med Microbiol Immunol (Berl) 182, 329–334. [Google Scholar]
  120. Tucker, T. J., Smuts, H. E. M., Eedes, C., Gideon, D. K., Eckhaus, P., Robson, S. C. & Kirsch, R. E.(2000). Evidence that the GBV-C/hepatitits C virus is primarily a lymphotropic virus. J Med Virol 61, 52–58.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  121. Van der Bij, A. K., Kloosterboer, N., Prins, M., Boeser-Nunnink, B., Geskus, R. B., Lange, J. M. A., Coutinho, R. A. & Schuitemaker, H.(2005). GB virus C coinfection and HIV-1 disease progression: the Amsterdam cohort study. J Infect Dis 191, 678–685.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  122. Vitral, C. L., Gaspar, A. M. C., Marchevsky, R. S., Pinto, M. A., da Silva, M. F., Pissurno, J. W., Barth, O. M., Alves, V. A. F., Santos, R. T. M. & other authors(1997). Evaluation of the susceptibility of rhesus monkeys for hepatitis C virus infection. In Viral Hepatitis and Liver Disease, pp. 209–213. Edited by Rizzetto, M., Purcell, R. H., Gerin, J. L. & Verme, G.. Turin. : Edizioni Minerva Medica. [Google Scholar]
  123. Wakita, T., Pietschmann, T., Kato, T., Date, T., Miyamoto, H. G., Mizokami, M., Zhao, Z., Murthy, K., Habermann, A. & other authors(2005). Production of infectious hepatitis C virus in tissue culture from a cloned viral genome. Nat Med 11, 791–796.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  124. Williams, C. F., Klinzman, D., Yamashita, T. E., Xiang, J., Polgreen, P. M., Rinaldo, C., Liu, C., Phair, J., Margolick, J. B. & other authors(2004). Persistent GB virus C infection and survival in HIV-infected men. N Engl J Med 350, 981–990.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  125. Wunschmann, S., Klinzman, D., Medh, J., Klinzman, D., Schmidt, W. N. & Stapleton, J. T.(2000). Characterization of hepatitis C virus (HCV) and HCV E2 interactions with CD81 and the low density lipoprotein receptor. J Virol 74, 10055–10062.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  126. Wunschmann, S., Muller, H. M., Stipp, C. S., Hemler, M. E. & Stapleton, J. T.(2006).In vitro interaction between hepatitis C virus (HCV) envelope glycoprotein E2 and serum lipoproteins (LPs) results in enhanced cellular binding of both HCV E2 and LPs. J Infect Dis 194, 1058–1067.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  127. Xiang, J., Klinzman, D., McLinden, J., Schmidt, W. N., LaBrecque, D. R., Gish, R. & Stapleton, J. T.(1998). Characterization of hepatitis G virus (GB-C Virus) particles: evidence for a nucleocapsid and expression of sequences upstream of the E1 protein. J Virol 72, 2738–2744. [Google Scholar]
  128. Xiang, J., Wunschmann, S., Schmidt, W. N., Shao, J. & Stapleton, J. T.(2000). Full-length GB virus C (hepatitis G virus) RNA transcripts are infectious in primary CD4-positive T cells. J Virol 74, 9125–9133.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  129. Yanagi, M., Purcell, R. H., Emerson, S. U. & Bukh, J.(1997). Transcripts from a single full-length cDNA clone of hepatitis C virus are infectious when directly transfected into the liver of a chimpanzee. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 94, 8738–8743.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  130. Yoo, B. J., Spaete, R. R., Geballe, A. P., Selby, M., Houghton, M. & Han, J. H.(1992). 5′ end-dependent translation initiation of hepatitis C viral RNA and the presence of putative positive and negative translational control elements within the 5′ untranslated region. Virology 191, 889–899.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  131. Zhong, J., Gastaminza, P., Cheng, G., Kapadia, S., Kato, T., Burton, D. R., Wieland, S. F., Uprichard, S. L., Wakita, T. & Chisari, F. V.(2005). Robust hepatitis C virus infection in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102, 9294–9299.[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
http://instance.metastore.ingenta.com/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/vir.0.027490-0
Loading
The GB viruses: a review and proposed classification of GBV-A, GBV-C (HGV), and GBV-D in genus Pegivirus within the family Flaviviridae
J. Gen. Virol. 92, 233 (2011); https://doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.027490-0
/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/vir.0.027490-0
/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/vir.0.027490-0
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Supplements

vol. , part 2, pp. 233 - 246

Alignment of the amino acid sequence of conserved regions of helicase

Alignment of the amino acid sequence of conserved regions of RdRp [Single PDF file](132 KB)

 

PDF

Most cited this month Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error