1887

Journal of General Virology header logo

Volume 103, Issue 7

Message in a bottle: mRNA vaccination for influenza Open Access

Abstract

Current influenza vaccines, while being the best method of managing viral outbreaks, have several major drawbacks that prevent them from being wholly-effective. They need to be updated regularly and require extensive resources to develop. When considering alternatives, the recent deployment of mRNA vaccines for SARS-CoV-2 has created a unique opportunity to evaluate a new platform for seasonal and pandemic influenza vaccines. The mRNA format has previously been examined for application to influenza and promising data suggest it may be a viable format for next-generation influenza vaccines. Here, we discuss the prospect of shifting global influenza vaccination efforts to an mRNA-based system that might allow better control over the product and immune responses and could aid in the development of a universal vaccine.

  • Received:
  • Accepted:
  • Published Online:
Keyword(s): adjuvant , antigenic drift , influenza , mRNA vaccine , strain selection and universal vaccine
Funding
This study was supported by the:
  • Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (Award 75N93021C00017)
    • Principle Award Recipient: AniceC Lowen
© 2022 The Authors
  • This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The Microbiology Society waived the open access fees for this article.
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/jgv.0.001765
2022-07-13
2024-04-24
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/jgv/103/7/jgv001765.html?itemId=/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/jgv.0.001765&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

References

  1. Barberis I, Myles P, Ault SK, Bragazzi NL, Martini M. History and evolution of influenza control through vaccination: from the first monovalent vaccine to universal vaccines. J Prev Med Hyg 2016; 57:E115–E120
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Francis T. Vaccination against influenza. Bull World Health Organ 1953; 8:725–741 [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  3. Plotkin SA, Orenstein WA, Offit PA. Plotkin’s Vaccines, 17th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2018 p 1691
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Palese P, Racaniello VR, Desselberger U, Young J, Baez M. Genetic structure and genetic variation of influenza viruses. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 1980; 288:299–305 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Javanian M, Barary M, Ghebrehewet S, Koppolu V, Vasigala V et al. A brief review of influenza virus infection. J Med Virol 2021; 93:4638–4646 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Gamblin SJ, Skehel JJ. Influenza hemagglutinin and neuraminidase membrane glycoproteins. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:28403–28409 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Gamblin SJ, Vachieri SG, Xiong X, Zhang J, Martin SR et al. Hemagglutinin structure and activities. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2021; 11:10 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Lai JCC, Chan WWL, Kien F, Nicholls JM, Peiris JSM et al. Formation of virus-like particles from human cell lines exclusively expressing influenza neuraminidase. J Gen Virol 2010; 91:2322–2330 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Mostafa A, Abdelwhab EM, Mettenleiter TC, Pleschka S. Zoonotic potential of influenza A viruses: a comprehensive overview. Viruses 2018; 10:E497 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Keshavarz M, Mirzaei H, Salemi M, Momeni F, Mousavi MJ et al. Influenza vaccine: Where are we and where do we go?. Rev Med Virol 2019; 29:e2014 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  11. (CDC) CfDCaP Different Types of Flu Vaccines; 2021 https://www.cdc.gov/flu/prevent/different-flu-vaccines.htm accessed 25 October 2021
  12. Del Giudice G, Rappuoli R. Inactivated and adjuvanted influenza vaccines. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2015; 386:151–180 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Jin H, Subbarao K. Live attenuated influenza vaccine. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2015; 386:181–204 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Maassab HF, Bryant ML. The development of live attenuated cold-adapted influenza virus vaccine for humans. Rev Med Virol 1999; 9:237–244 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Paget J, Spreeuwenberg P, Charu V, Taylor RJ, Iuliano AD et al. Global mortality associated with seasonal influenza epidemics: New burden estimates and predictors from the GLaMOR Project. J Glob Health 2019; 9:020421 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Organization WH Influenza (Seasonal); 2018 https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/influenza-(seasonal) accessed 11 June 2018
  17. OECD Influenza vaccination rates (indicator); 2021
  18. Iuliano AD, Roguski KM, Chang HH, Muscatello DJ, Palekar R et al. Estimates of global seasonal influenza-associated respiratory mortality: a modelling study. Lancet 2018; 391:1285–1300 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Osterholm MT, Kelley NS, Sommer A, Belongia EA. Efficacy and effectiveness of influenza vaccines: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2012; 12:36–44 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Bartley JM, Cadar AN, Martin DE. Better, Faster, Stronger: mRNA Vaccines Show Promise for Influenza Vaccination in Older Adults. Immunol Invest 2021; 50:810–820 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Hughes K, Middleton DB, Nowalk MP, Balasubramani GK, Martin ET et al. Effectiveness of Influenza Vaccine for Preventing Laboratory-Confirmed Influenza Hospitalizations in Immunocompromised Adults. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 73:e4353–e4360 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Organization GWH Global influenza strategy; 2019-2030
  23. Baden LR, El Sahly HM, Essink B, Kotloff K, Frey S et al. Efficacy and Safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine. N Engl J Med 2021; 384:403–416 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Polack FP, Thomas SJ, Kitchin N, Absalon J, Gurtman A et al. Safety and Efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 Vaccine. N Engl J Med 2020; 383:2603–2615 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Health IMo Covid-19 Vaccines for 12-year-olds and Older; 2022 https://corona.health.gov.il/en/vaccine-for-covid/over-12/
  26. (CDC) CfDCaP Stay Up to Date with Your COVID-19 Vaccines; 2022 https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/stay-up-to-date.html
  27. Tregoning JS, Flight KE, Higham SL, Wang Z, Pierce BF. Progress of the COVID-19 vaccine effort: viruses, vaccines and variants versus efficacy, effectiveness and escape. Nat Rev Immunol 2021; 21:626–636 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Petsch B, Schnee M, Vogel AB, Lange E, Hoffmann B et al. Protective efficacy of in vitro synthesized, specific mRNA vaccines against influenza A virus infection. Nat Biotechnol 2012; 30:1210–1216 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Lutz J, Lazzaro S, Habbeddine M, Schmidt KE, Baumhof P et al. Unmodified mRNA in LNPs constitutes a competitive technology for prophylactic vaccines. NPJ Vaccines 2017; 2:29 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Pardi N, Hogan MJ, Porter FW, Weissman D. mRNA vaccines - a new era in vaccinology. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2018; 17:261–279 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Pilkington EH, Suys EJA, Trevaskis NL, Wheatley AK, Zukancic D et al. From influenza to COVID-19: Lipid nanoparticle mRNA vaccines at the frontiers of infectious diseases. Acta Biomater 2021; 131:16–40 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Chen J-R, Liu Y-M, Tseng Y-C, Ma C. Better influenza vaccines: an industry perspective. J Biomed Sci 2020; 27: [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Kim H, Webster RG, Webby RJ. Influenza Virus: Dealing with a Drifting and Shifting Pathogen. Viral Immunol 2018; 31:174–183 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Moderna ships mRNA vaccine against novel coronavirus (mRNA-1273) for phase 1 study [Press Release]. 02/24/2020 2020; 2020
  35. Moderna announces first participant dosed in NIH-led phase 1 study of mRNA vaccine (mRNA-1273) against novel coronavirus [Press Release]. 03/16/2020; 2020
  36. Dormitzer PR. Rapid production of synthetic influenza vaccines. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2015; 386:237–273 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  37. To KKW, Cho WCS. An overview of rational design of mRNA-based therapeutics and vaccines. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2021; 16:1307–1317 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Andrews N, Stowe J, Kirsebom F, Toffa S, Rickeard T et al. Covid-19 Vaccine Effectiveness against the Omicron (B.1.1.529) Variant. N Engl J Med 2022; 386:1532–1546 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Su H, Zhao Y, Zheng L, Wang S, Shi H et al. Effect of the selection pressure of vaccine antibodies on evolution of H9N2 avian influenza virus in chickens. AMB Express 2020; 10:98 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Alonso WJ, Yu C, Viboud C, Richard SA, Schuck-Paim C et al. A global map of hemispheric influenza vaccine recommendations based on local patterns of viral circulation. Sci Rep 2015; 5:17214 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Dave K, Lee PC. Global geographical and temporal patterns of seasonal influenza and associated climatic factors. Epidemiol Rev 2019; 41:51–68 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Burnet FM. Immunological studies with the virus of infectious laryngotracheitis of fowls using the developing egg technique. J Exp Med 1936; 63:685–701 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  43. Trombetta CM, Marchi S, Manini I, Lazzeri G, Montomoli E. Challenges in the development of egg-independent vaccines for influenza. Expert Rev Vaccines 2019; 18:737–750 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  44. Stevens J, Chen L-M, Carney PJ, Garten R, Foust A et al. Receptor specificity of influenza A H3N2 viruses isolated in mammalian cells and embryonated chicken eggs. J Virol 2010; 84:8287–8299 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  45. Lin YP, Xiong X, Wharton SA, Martin SR, Coombs PJ et al. Evolution of the receptor binding properties of the influenza A(H3N2) hemagglutinin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:21474–21479 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Nakowitsch S, Waltenberger AM, Wressnigg N, Ferstl N, Triendl A et al. Egg- or cell culture-derived hemagglutinin mutations impair virus stability and antigen content of inactivated influenza vaccines. Biotechnol J 2014; 9:405–414 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  47. (CDC) CfDCaP CDC Vaccine Price List 2022; 2022 https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/programs/vfc/awardees/vaccine-management/price-list/index.html accessed 1 January 2022
  48. Bouvier NM, Palese P. The biology of influenza viruses. Vaccine 2008; 26 Suppl 4:D49–53 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  49. Wu NC, Wilson IA. Influenza hemagglutinin structures and antibody recognition. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2020; 10:a038778 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  50. (CDC) CfDCaP 1918 Pandemic (H1N1 virus); 2019 https://www.cdc.gov/flu/pandemic-resources/1918-pandemic-h1n1.html accessed 20 March 2019
  51. (CDC) CfDCaP Emergence of avian influenza A(H7N9) virus causing severe human illness - China, February-April 2013. morbidity and mortality weekly report; 2013; 6218–6
  52. Geneva WHO. Pandemic influenza A (H1N1) 2009 virus vaccine - conclusions and recommendations from the october 2009 meeting of the immunization strategic advisory group of experts. Weekly Epidemiological Report 2009; 84:49–4
     [Google Scholar]
  53. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Pandemic Influenza Plan 2017 Update; 2017
  54. Krammer F, García-Sastre A, Palese P. Is It Possible to Develop a “Universal” Influenza Virus Vaccine? Potential Target Antigens and Critical Aspects for a Universal Influenza Vaccine. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2018; 10:a028845 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  55. (CDC) CfDCaP Past Seasons Vaccine Effectiveness Estimates; 2021 https://www.cdc.gov/flu/vaccines-work/past-seasons-estimates.html
  56. Sah P, Alfaro-Murillo JA, Fitzpatrick MC, Neuzil KM, Meyers LA et al. Future epidemiological and economic impacts of universal influenza vaccines. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:20786–20792 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  57. Worby CJ, Wallinga J, Lipsitch M, Goldstein E. Population effect of influenza vaccination under co-circulation of non-vaccine variants and the case for A bivalent A/H3N2 vaccine component. Epidemics 2017; 19:74–82 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  58. Schlingmann B, Castiglia KR, Stobart CC, Moore ML. Polyvalent vaccines: High-maintenance heroes. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1006904 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  59. Estrada LD, Schultz-Cherry S. Development of a Universal Influenza Vaccine. J Immunol 2019; 202:392–398 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  60. Pardi N, Parkhouse K, Kirkpatrick E, McMahon M, Zost SJ et al. Nucleoside-modified mRNA immunization elicits influenza virus hemagglutinin stalk-specific antibodies. Nat Commun 2018; 9:3361 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Bazhan S, Antonets D, Starostina E, Ilyicheva T, Kaplina O et al. Immunogenicity and Protective Efficacy of Influenza A DNA Vaccines Encoding Artificial Antigens Based on Conservative Hemagglutinin Stem Region and M2 Protein in Mice. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:448 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  62. Starostina EV, Sharabrin SV, Antropov DN, Stepanov GA, Shevelev GY et al. Construction and Immunogenicity of Modified mRNA-Vaccine Variants Encoding Influenza Virus Antigens. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:452 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  63. Zykova AA, Blokhina EA, Stepanova LA, Shuklina MA, Tsybalova LM et al. Nanoparticles based on artificial self-assembling peptide and displaying M2e peptide and stalk HA epitopes of influenza A virus induce potent humoral and T-cell responses and protect against the viral infection. Nanomedicine 2022; 39:102463 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  64. Freyn AW, Ramos da Silva J, Rosado VC, Bliss CM, Pine M et al. A Multi-Targeting, Nucleoside-Modified mRNA Influenza Virus Vaccine Provides Broad Protection in Mice. Mol Ther 2020; 28:1569–1584 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  65. Alymova IV, York IA, Air GM, Cipollo JF, Gulati S et al. Glycosylation changes in the globular head of H3N2 influenza hemagglutinin modulate receptor binding without affecting virus virulence. Sci Rep 2016; 6:36216 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  66. An Y, Parsons LM, Jankowska E, Melnyk D, Joshi M et al. N-Glycosylation of Seasonal Influenza Vaccine Hemagglutinins: Implication for Potency Testing and Immune Processing. J Virol 2019; 93:e01693-18 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  67. Vigerust DJ, Shepherd VL. Virus glycosylation: role in virulence and immune interactions. Trends Microbiol 2007; 15:211–218 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  68. Abe Y, Takashita E, Sugawara K, Matsuzaki Y, Muraki Y et al. Effect of the addition of oligosaccharides on the biological activities and antigenicity of influenza A/H3N2 virus hemagglutinin. J Virol 2004; 78:9605–9611 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  69. Chen W, Zhong Y, Su R, Qi H, Deng W et al. N-glycan profiles in H9N2 avian influenza viruses from chicken eggs and human embryonic lung fibroblast cells. J Virol Methods 2017; 249:10–20 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  70. Edwards DK, Jasny E, Yoon H, Horscroft N, Schanen B et al. Adjuvant effects of a sequence-engineered mRNA vaccine: translational profiling demonstrates similar human and murine innate response. J Transl Med 2017; 15:1 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  71. de Oliveira Mann CC, Hornung V. Molecular mechanisms of nonself nucleic acid recognition by the innate immune system. Eur J Immunol 2021; 51:1897–1910 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  72. Linares-Fernández S, Lacroix C, Exposito J-Y, Verrier B. Tailoring mRNA Vaccine to Balance Innate/Adaptive Immune Response. Trends Mol Med 2020; 26:311–323 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  73. Karikó K, Buckstein M, Ni H, Weissman D. Suppression of RNA recognition by Toll-like receptors: the impact of nucleoside modification and the evolutionary origin of RNA. Immunity 2005; 23:165–175 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  74. Karikó K, Muramatsu H, Ludwig J, Weissman D. Generating the optimal mRNA for therapy: HPLC purification eliminates immune activation and improves translation of nucleoside-modified, protein-encoding mRNA. Nucleic Acids Res 2011; 39:e142 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  75. Fang E, Liu X, Li M, Zhang Z, Song L et al. Advances in COVID-19 mRNA vaccine development. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2022; 7:94 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  76. Gargano JW, Wallace M, Hadler SC, Langley G, Su JR et al. Use of mRNA COVID-19 Vaccine After Reports of Myocarditis Among Vaccine Recipients: Update from the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices - United States, June 2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2021; 70:977–982 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  77. Cai C, Peng Y, Shen E, Huang Q, Chen Y et al. A comprehensive analysis of the efficacy and safety of COVID-19 vaccines. Mol Ther 2021; 29:2794–2805 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  78. Barda N, Dagan N, Ben-Shlomo Y, Kepten E, Waxman J et al. Safety of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 Vaccine in a Nationwide Setting. N Engl J Med 2021; 385:1078–1090 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  79. Arunachalam PS, Scott MKD, Hagan T, Li C, Feng Y et al. Systems vaccinology of the BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine in humans. Nature 2021; 596:410–416 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  80. Li C, Lee A, Grigoryan L, Arunachalam PS, Scott MKD et al. Mechanisms of innate and adaptive immunity to the Pfizer-BioNTech BNT162b2 vaccine. Nat Immunol 2022; 23:543–555 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  81. Tahtinen S, Tong A-J, Himmels P, Oh J, Paler-Martinez A et al. IL-1 and IL-1ra are key regulators of the inflammatory response to RNA vaccines. Nat Immunol 2022; 23:532–542 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  82. Arcturus announces self-amplifying COVID-19 mrna vaccine candidate ARCT-154 meets primary efficacy endpoint in phase 3 study [press release]. 4/20/22; 2022
  83. Hekele A, Bertholet S, Archer J, Gibson DG, Palladino G et al. Rapidly produced SAM(®) vaccine against H7N9 influenza is immunogenic in mice. Emerg Microbes Infect 2013; 2:e52 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  84. Brazzoli M, Magini D, Bonci A, Buccato S, Giovani C et al. Induction of Broad-Based Immunity and Protective Efficacy by Self-amplifying mRNA Vaccines Encoding Influenza Virus Hemagglutinin. J Virol 2016; 90:332–344 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  85. Sedova ES, Shcherbinin DN, Migunov AI, Smirnov IA, Logunov DI et al. Recombinant influenza vaccines. Acta Naturae 2012; 4:17–27 [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  86. Feldman RA, Fuhr R, Smolenov I, Mick Ribeiro A, Panther L et al. mRNA vaccines against H10N8 and H7N9 influenza viruses of pandemic potential are immunogenic and well tolerated in healthy adults in phase 1 randomized clinical trials. Vaccine 2019; 37:3326–3334 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  87. Ebinger JE, Lan R, Sun N, Wu M, Joung S et al. Symptomology following mRNA vaccination against SARS-CoV-2. Prev Med 2021; 153:106860 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  88. Moderna announces positive interim phase 1 data for mrna flu vaccine and provides program update [press release]; 2021
  89. Massare MJ, Patel N, Zhou B, Maciejewski S, Flores R et al. Combination respiratory vaccine containing recombinant SARS-cov-2 spike and quadrivalentseasonal influenza hemagglutinin nanoparticles with matrix-M adjuvant. bioRxiv 2021
     [Google Scholar]
  90. Karlsson LC, Soveri A, Lewandowsky S, Karlsson L, Karlsson H et al. The behavioral immune system and vaccination intentions during the coronavirus pandemic. Pers Individ Dif 2022; 185:111295 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  91. Bokemper SE, Gerber AS, Omer SB, Huber GA. Persuading US White evangelicals to vaccinate for COVID-19: Testing message effectiveness in fall 2020 and spring 2021. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:49 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  92. Ritchie HM, Edouard; Rodés-Guirao, Luis; Appel, Cameron; Giattino, Charlie; Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban; Hasell, Joe; Macdonald, Bobbie; Beltekian, Diana; Roser, Max Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19) [Online resource]. OurWorldInData.org202; 2020 https://ourworldindata.org/coronavirus
  93. Ortiz JR, Neuzil KM. Influenza Immunization in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Preparing for Next-Generation Influenza Vaccines. J Infect Dis 2019; 219:S97–S106 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  94. Moderna I. Fact sheet for healthcare providers administering vaccine (vaccination providers); 202238
  95. Pfizer Manufacturing and Distributing the COVID-19 Vaccine; 2022 https://www.pfizer.com/science/coronavirus/vaccine/manufacturing-and-distribution
  96. Bahl K, Senn JJ, Yuzhakov O, Bulychev A, Brito LA et al. Preclinical and Clinical Demonstration of Immunogenicity by mRNA Vaccines against H10N8 and H7N9 Influenza Viruses. Mol Ther 2017; 25:1316–1327 [View Article] [PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
http://instance.metastore.ingenta.com/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/jgv.0.001765
Loading
Message in a bottle: mRNA vaccination for influenza
J. Gen. Virol. 103, 001765 (2022); https://doi.org/10.1099/jgv.0.001765
/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/jgv.0.001765
/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/jgv.0.001765
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Most cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error