1887

Abstract

Infection with feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), a lentivirus similar to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), results in lifelong viral persistence and progressive immunopathology in the cat. FIV has the ability to infect and produce infectious virus in a number of different cell types. FIV provirus can also be maintained in a replication-competent but transcriptionally quiescent state, facilitating viral persistence over time. Immediately after the initial infection, FIV infection quickly disseminates to many anatomical compartments within the host including lymphoid organs, gastrointestinal tract and brain. Collectively, the anatomic and cellular compartments that harbour FIV provirus constitute the viral reservoir and contain foci of both ongoing viral replication and transcriptionally restricted virus that may persist over time. The relative importance of the different phenotypes observed for infected cells, anatomic compartment, replication status and size of the reservoir represent crucial areas of investigation for developing effective viral suppression and eradication therapies. In this review, we discuss what is currently known about FIV reservoirs, and emphasize the utility of the FIV-infected cat as a model for the HIV-infected human.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/jgv.0.000866
2017-08-01
2024-12-08
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/jgv/98/8/1985.html?itemId=/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/jgv.0.000866&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

References

  1. Levy JK, Scott HM, Lachtara JL, Crawford PC. Seroprevalence of feline leukemia virus and feline immunodeficiency virus infection among cats in North America and risk factors for seropositivity. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2006; 228:371–376 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Nedumpun T, Piamsomboon P, Chanchaithong P, Taweethavonsawat P, Chungpivat S et al. Prevalence and distributions of feline immunodeficiency virus and feline leukemia virus infections in Bangkok and its vicinity, Thailand during 2013–2014. THAI J Vet Med 2015; 45:449–453
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Oguzoglu T, Muz D, Timurkan M, Maral N, Gurcan I. Prevalences of feline coronavirus (FCoV), feline leukaemia virus (FeLV), feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) and feline parvovirus (FPV) among domestic cats in Ankara, Turkey. Rev Med Vet 2013; 164:511–516
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Bande F, Arshad SS, Hassan L, Zakaria Z, Sapian NA et al. Prevalence and risk factors of feline leukaemia virus and feline immunodeficiency virus in peninsular Malaysia. BMC Vet Res 2012; 8:33 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Nakamura Y, Nakamura Y, Ura A, Hirata M, Sakuma M et al. An updated nation-wide epidemiological survey of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infection in Japan. J Vet Med Sci 2010; 72:1051–1056 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Hartmann K. Clinical aspects of feline immunodeficiency and feline leukemia virus infection. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2011; 143:190–201 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Bęczkowski PM, Litster A, Lin TL, Mellor DJ, Willett BJ et al. Contrasting clinical outcomes in two cohorts of cats naturally infected with feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV). Vet Microbiol 2015; 176:50–60 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Pedersen NC, Torten M, Rideout B, Sparger E, Tonachini T et al. Feline leukemia virus infection as a potentiating cofactor for the primary and secondary stages of experimentally induced feline immunodeficiency virus infection. J Virol 1990; 64:598–606[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Kohmoto M, Uetsuka K, Ikeda Y, Inoshima Y, Shimojima M et al. Eight-year observation and comparative study of specific pathogen-free cats experimentally infected with feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) subtypes A and B: terminal acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in a cat infected with FIV petaluma strain. J Vet Med Sci 1998; 60:315–321[PubMed] [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Kann RK, Seddon JM, Kyaw-Tanner MT, Henning J, Meers J. Association between feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) plasma viral RNA load, concentration of acute phase proteins and disease severity. Vet J 2014; 201:181–183 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Yoshikawa R, Izumi T, Yamada E, Nakano Y, Misawa N et al. A naturally occurring domestic cat APOBEC3 variant confers resistance to feline immunodeficiency virus infection. J Virol 2015; 90:474–485 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Kolenda-Roberts HM, Kuhnt LA, Jennings RN, Mergia A, Gengozian N et al. Immunopathogenesis of feline immunodeficiency virus infection in the fetal and neonatal cat. Front Biosci 2007; 12:3668–3682 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Barton K, Winckelmann A, Palmer S. HIV-1 reservoirs during suppressive therapy. Trends Microbiol 2016; 24:345–355 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Churchill MJ, Deeks SG, Margolis DM, Siliciano RF, Swanstrom R. HIV reservoirs: what, where and how to target them. Nat Rev Microbiol 2016; 14:55–60 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Chavez L, Calvanese V, Verdin E. HIV latency is established directly and early in both resting and activated primary CD4 T cells. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004955 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Morrison JH, Guevara RB, Marcano AC, Saenz DT, Fadel HJ et al. Feline immunodeficiency virus envelope glycoproteins antagonize tetherin through a distinctive mechanism that requires virion incorporation. J Virol 2014; 88:3255–3272 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Pedersen NC, Ho EW, Brown ML, Yamamoto JK. Isolation of a T-lymphotropic virus from domestic cats with an immunodeficiency-like syndrome. Science 1987; 235:790–793 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Hopper CD, Sparkes AH, Gruffydd-Jones TJ, Crispin SM, Muir P et al. Clinical and laboratory findings in cats infected with feline immunodeficiency virus. Vet Rec 1989; 125:341–346 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Torten M, Franchini M, Barlough JE, George JW, Mozes E et al. Progressive immune dysfunction in cats experimentally infected with feline immunodeficiency virus. J Virol 1991; 65:2225–2230[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  20. English RV, Nelson P, Johnson CM, Nasisse M, Tompkins WA et al. Development of clinical disease in cats experimentally infected with feline immunodeficiency virus. J Infect Dis 1994; 170:543–552 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Elder JH, Lin YC, Fink E, Grant CK. Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) as a model for study of lentivirus infections: parallels with HIV. Curr HIV Res 2010; 8:73–80 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Naif HM. Pathogenesis of HIV infection. Infect Dis Rep 2013; 5:26–30 [View Article]
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Ishida T, Tomoda I. Clinical staging of feline immunodeficiency virus infection. Japanese J Vet Sci 1990; 52:645–648 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Hartmann K. Clinical aspects of feline retroviruses: a review. Viruses 2012; 4:2684–2710 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Fujino Y, Horiuchi H, Mizukoshi F, Baba K, Goto-Koshino Y et al. Prevalence of hematological abnormalities and detection of infected bone marrow cells in asymptomatic cats with feline immunodeficiency virus infection. Vet Microbiol 2009; 136:217–225 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  26. English RV, Johnson CM, Gebhard DH, Tompkins MB. In vivo lymphocyte tropism of feline immunodeficiency virus. J Virol 1993; 67:5175–5186[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Dean GA, Reubel GH, Moore PF, Pedersen NC. Proviral burden and infection kinetics of feline immunodeficiency virus in lymphocyte subsets of blood and lymph node. J Virol 1996; 70:5165–5169[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Dean GA, Himathongkham S, Sparger EE. Differential cell tropism of feline immunodeficiency virus molecular clones in vivo. J Virol 1999; 73:2596-603[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Rogers AB, Mathiason CK, Hoover EA. Immunohistochemical localization of feline immunodeficiency virus using native species antibodies. Am J Pathol 2002; 161:1143–1151 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Obert LA, Hoover EA. Early pathogenesis of transmucosal feline immunodeficiency virus infection. J Virol 2002; 76:6311–6322 [View Article]
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Beebe AM, Dua N, Faith TG, Moore PF, Pedersen NC et al. Primary stage of feline immunodeficiency virus infection: viral dissemination and cellular targets. J Virol 1994; 68:3080–3091[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Willett BJ, Picard L, Hosie MJ, Turner JD, Adema K et al. Shared usage of the chemokine receptor CXCR4 by the feline and human immunodeficiency viruses. J Virol 1997; 71:6407–6415[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  33. de Parseval A, Chatterji U, Sun P, Elder JH. Feline immunodeficiency virus targets activated CD4+ T cells by using CD134 as a binding receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004; 101:13044–13049 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Shimojima M, Miyazawa T, Ikeda Y, Mcmonagle EL, Haining H et al. Use of CD134 as a primary receptor by the feline immunodeficiency virus. Science 2004; 303:1192–1195 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  35. de Parseval A, Chatterji U, Morris G, Sun P, Olson AJ et al. Structural mapping of CD134 residues critical for interaction with feline immunodeficiency virus. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2005; 12:60–66 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Hu QY, Fink E, Hong Y, Wang C, Grant CK et al. Fine definition of the CXCR4-binding region on the V3 loop of feline immunodeficiency virus surface glycoprotein. PLoS One 2010; 5:e10689 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Aiamkitsumrit B, Dampier W, Antell G, Rivera N, Martin-Garcia J et al. Bioinformatic analysis of HIV-1 entry and pathogenesis. Curr HIV Res 2014; 12:132–161 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Clapham PR, Mcknight A. Cell surface receptors, virus entry and tropism of primate lentiviruses. J Gen Virol 2002; 83:1809–1829 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Croft M. Control of immunity by the TNFR-related molecule OX40 (CD134). Annu Rev Immunol 2010; 28:57–78 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Aspeslagh S, Postel-Vinay S, Rusakiewicz S, Soria JC, Zitvogel L et al. Rationale for anti-OX40 cancer immunotherapy. Eur J Cancer 2016; 52:50–66 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Tahiliani V, Hutchinson TE, Abboud G, Croft M, Salek-Ardakani S. OX40 cooperates with ICOS to amplify follicular th cell development and germinal Center reactions during infection. J Immunol 2017; 198:218–228 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Willett BJ, Mcmonagle EL, Logan N, Spiller OB, Schneider P et al. Probing the interaction between feline immunodeficiency virus and CD134 by using the novel monoclonal antibody 7D6 and the CD134 (Ox40) ligand. J Virol 2007; 81:9665–9679 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Reggeti F, Ackerley C, Bienzle D. CD134 and CXCR4 expression corresponds to feline immunodeficiency virus infection of lymphocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells. J Gen Virol 2008; 89:277–287 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Willett BJ, Mcmonagle EL, Ridha S, Hosie MJ. Differential utilization of CD134 as a functional receptor by diverse strains of feline immunodeficiency virus. J Virol 2006; 80:3386–3394 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Willett BJ, Mcmonagle EL, Bonci F, Pistello M, Hosie MJ. Mapping the domains of CD134 as a functional receptor for feline immunodeficiency virus. J Virol 2006; 80:7744–7747 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Grant CK, Fink EA, Sundstrom M, Torbett BE, Elder JH. Improved health and survival of FIV-infected cats is associated with the presence of autoantibodies to the primary receptor, CD134. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009; 106:19980–19985 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Bęczkowski PM, Techakriengkrai N, Logan N, Mcmonagle E, Litster A et al. Emergence of CD134 cysteine-rich domain 2 (CRD2)-independent strains of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) is associated with disease progression in naturally infected cats. Retrovirology 2014; 11:95 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Bęczkowski PM, Hughes J, Biek R, Litster A, Willett BJ et al. Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) env recombinants are common in natural infections. Retrovirology 2014; 11:80 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Willett BJ, Hosie MJ. The virus-receptor interaction in the replication of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV). Curr Opin Virol 2013; 3:670–675 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Willett BJ, Kraase M, Logan N, Mcmonagle E, Varela M et al. Selective expansion of viral variants following experimental transmission of a reconstituted feline immunodeficiency virus quasispecies. PLoS One 2013; 8:e54871 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Willett BJ, Cannon CA, Hosie MJ. Expression of CXCR4 on feline peripheral blood mononuclear cells: effect of feline immunodeficiency virus infection. J Virol 2003; 77:709–712 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Joshi A, Vahlenkamp TW, Garg H, Tompkins WA, Tompkins MB. Preferential replication of FIV in activated CD4+ CD25+ T cells independent of cellular proliferation. Virology 2004; 321:307–322 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Hu QY, Fink E, Elder JH. Mapping of receptor binding interactions with the FIV surface glycoprotein (SU); Implications regarding immune surveillance and cellular targets of infection. Retrovirology 2012; 2012:1–11 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Troth SP, Dean AD, Hoover EA. In vivo CXCR4 expression, lymphoid cell phenotype, and feline immunodeficiency virus infection. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2008; 123:97–105 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Bobardt MD, Saphire AC, Hung HC, Yu X, van der Schueren B et al. Syndecan captures, protects, and transmits HIV to T lymphocytes. Immunity 2003; 18:27–39 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Geijtenbeek TB, Kwon DS, Torensma R, van Vliet SJ, van Duijnhoven GC et al. DC-SIGN, a dendritic cell-specific HIV-1-binding protein that enhances trans-infection of T cells. Cell 2000; 100:587–597 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Woo JC, Dean GA, Pedersen NC, Moore PF. Immunopathologic changes in the thymus during the acute stage of experimentally induced feline immunodeficiency virus infection in juvenile cats. J Virol 1997; 71:8632–8641[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Dow SW, Mathiason CK, Hoover EA, Edward A. In vivo monocyte tropism of pathogenic feline immunodeficiency viruses. J Virol 1999; 73:6852–6861[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Brown WC, Bissey L, Logan KS, Pedersen NC, Elder JH et al. Feline immunodeficiency virus infects both CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes. J Virol 1991; 65:3359–3364[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Burkhard MJ, Dean GA. Transmission and immunopathogenesis of FIV in cats as a model for HIV. Curr HIV Res 2003; 1:15–29 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Mcdonnel SJ, Sparger EE, Murphy BG. Feline immunodeficiency virus latency. Retrovirology 2013; 10:69 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Bienzle D. FIV in cats–a useful model of HIV in people?. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2014; 159:171–179 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Hood S, Thompson E, Akaronu N, Miller M, Virology FJ. Monocyte-derived dendritic cells from feline immunodeficiency virus positive cats are productively infected and maintain CD8+ T cell stimulatory capacity. Int J Virol AIDS 2015; 2:1
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Sprague WS, Robbiani M, Avery PR, O'Halloran KP, Hoover EA. Feline immunodeficiency virus dendritic cell infection and transfer. J Gen Virol 2008; 89:709–715 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Nasr N, Harman A, Turville S, Cunningham AL. HIV infection of dendritic cells. Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1087:221–232 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Miles B, Connick E. TFH in HIV latency and as sources of replication-competent virus. Trends Microbiol 2016; 24:338–344 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Dow SW, Dreitz MJ, Hoover EA. Feline immunodeficiency virus neurotropism: evidence that astrocytes and microglia are the primary target cells. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 1992; 35:23–35 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Dow SW, Poss ML, Hoover EA. Feline immunodeficiency virus: a neurotropic lentivirus. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1990; 3:658–668[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Hein A, Martin JP, Koehren F, Bingen A, Dörries R. In vivo infection of ramified microglia from adult cat central nervous system by feline immunodeficiency virus. Virology 2000; 268:420–429 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Billaud JN, Selway D, Yu N, Phillips TR. Replication rate of feline immunodeficiency virus in astrocytes is envelope dependent: implications for glutamate uptake. Virology 2000; 266:180–188 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Yu N, Billaud JN, Phillips TR. Effects of feline immunodeficiency virus on astrocyte glutamate uptake: implications for lentivirus-induced central nervous system diseases. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998; 95:2624–2629 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Ryan G, Grimes T, Brankin B, Mabruk MJ, Hosie MJ et al. Neuropathology associated with feline immunodeficiency virus infection highlights prominent lymphocyte trafficking through both the blood-brain and blood-choroid plexus barriers. J Neurovirol 2005; 11:337–345 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Meeker RB, Bragg DC, Poulton W, Hudson L. Transmigration of macrophages across the choroid plexus epithelium in response to the feline immunodeficiency virus. Cell Tissue Res 2012; 347:443–455 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Fletcher NF, Meeker RB, Hudson LC, Callanan JJ. The neuropathogenesis of feline immunodeficiency virus infection: barriers to overcome. Vet J 2011; 188:260–269 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Gorry PR, Ong C, Thorpe J, Bannwarth S, Thompson KA et al. Astrocyte infection by HIV-1: mechanisms of restricted virus replication, and role in the pathogenesis of HIV-1-associated dementia. Curr HIV Res 2003; 1:463–473 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Liu Y, Liu H, Kim BO, Gattone VH, Li J et al. CD4-independent infection of astrocytes by human immunodeficiency virus type 1: requirement for the human mannose receptor. J Virol 2004; 78:4120–4133 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Gray LR, Turville SG, Hitchen TL, Cheng WJ, Ellett AM et al. HIV-1 entry and trans-infection of astrocytes involves CD81 vesicles. PLoS One 2014; 9:e90620 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Russell RA, Chojnacki J, Jones DM, Johnson E, Do T et al. Astrocytes resist HIV-1 fusion but Engulf infected macrophage material. Cell Rep 2017; 18:1473–1483 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Eckstrand CD, Hillman C, Smith AL, Sparger EE, Murphy BG. Viral reservoirs in lymph nodes of FIV-infected progressor and long-term non-progressor cats during the asymptomatic phase. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0146285 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Willett BJ, Hosie MJ, Callanan JJ, Neil JC, Jarrett O. Infection with feline immunodeficiency virus is followed by the rapid expansion of a CD8+ lymphocyte subset. Immunology 1993; 78:1–6[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Dua N, Reubel G, Moore PF, Higgins J, Pedersen NC. An experimental study of primary feline immunodeficiency virus infection in cats and a historical comparison to acute simian and human immunodeficiency virus diseases. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 1994; 43:337–355 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Sprague WS, Terwee JA, Vandewoude S. Temporal association of large granular lymphocytosis, neutropenia, proviral load, and FasL mRNA in cats with acute feline immunodeficiency virus infection. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2010; 134:115–121 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Murphy B, Hillman C, Mcdonnel S. Peripheral immunophenotype and viral promoter variants during the asymptomatic phase of feline immunodeficiency virus infection. Virus Res 2014; 179:34–43 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Murphy B, Vapniarsky N, Hillman C, Castillo D, Mcdonnel S et al. FIV establishes a latent infection in feline peripheral blood CD4+ T lymphocytes in vivo during the asymptomatic phase of infection. Retrovirology 2012; 9:12–17 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Bingen A, Nonnenmacher H, Bastien-Valle M, Martin JP. Tissues rich in macrophagic cells are the major sites of feline immunodeficiency virus uptake after intravenous inoculation into cats. Microbes Infect 2002; 4:795–803 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Queen SE, Mears BM, Kelly KM, Dorsey JL, Liao Z et al. Replication-competent simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) Gag escape mutations archived in latent reservoirs during antiretroviral treatment of SIV-infected macaques. J Virol 2011; 85:9167–9175 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  87. North TW, Higgins J, Deere JD, Hayes TL, Villalobos A et al. Viral sanctuaries during highly active antiretroviral therapy in a nonhuman primate model for AIDS. J Virol 2010; 84:2913–2922 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Eisele E, Siliciano RF. Redefining the viral reservoirs that prevent HIV-1 eradication. Immunity 2012; 37:377–388 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Letendre S, Marquie-Beck J, Capparelli E, Best B, Clifford D et al. Validation of the CNS penetration-effectiveness rank for quantifying antiretroviral penetration into the central nervous system. Arch Neurol 2008; 65:65–70 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Fletcher CV, Staskus K, Wietgrefe SW, Rothenberger M, Reilly C et al. Persistent HIV-1 replication is associated with lower antiretroviral drug concentrations in lymphatic tissues. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2014; 111:2307–2312 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Svicher V, Ceccherini-Silberstein F, Antinori A, Aquaro S, Perno CF et al. Understanding HIV compartments and reservoirs. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 2014; 11:186–194 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Eckstrand CD, Sparger EE, Pitt KA, Murphy BG. Peripheral and central immune cell reservoirs in tissues from asymptomatic cats chronically infected with feline immunodeficiency virus. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0175327 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Obert LA, Hoover EA. Feline immunodeficiency virus clade C mucosal transmission and disease courses. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2000; 16:677–688 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Rogers AB, Hoover EA. Maternal-fetal feline immunodeficiency virus transmission: timing and tissue tropisms. J Infect Dis 1998; 178:960–967 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Burkhard MJ, Obert LA, O'Neil LL, Diehl LJ, Hoover EA. Mucosal transmission of cell-associated and cell-free feline immunodeficiency virus. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1997; 13:347–355 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Murphy B, Hillman C, Mok M, Vapniarsky N. Lentiviral latency in peripheral CD4+ T cells isolated from feline immunodeficiency virus-infected cats during the asymptomatic phase is not associated with hypermethylation of the proviral promoter. Virus Res 2012; 169:117–126 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Park HS, Kyaw-Tanner M, Thomas J, Robinson WF. Feline immunodeficiency virus replicates in salivary gland ductular epithelium during the initial phase of infection. Vet Microbiol 1995; 46:257–267 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Diehl LJ, Mathiason-Dubard CK, O'Neil LL, Hoover EA. Longitudinal assessment of feline immunodeficiency virus kinetics in plasma by use of a quantitative competitive reverse transcriptase PCR. J Virol 1995; 69:2328–2332[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Toyosaki T, Miyazawa T, Furuya T, Tomonaga K, Shin YS et al. Localization of the viral antigen of feline immunodeficiency virus in the lymph nodes of cats at the early stage of infection. Arch Virol 1993; 131:335–347 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Sandy JR, Robinson WF, Bredhauer B, Kyaw-Tanner M, Howlett CR. Productive infection of the bone marrow cells in feline immunodeficiency virus infected cats. Arch Virol 2002; 147:1053–1059 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Thompson J, Macmillan M, Boegler K, Wood C, Elder JH et al. Pathogenicity and rapid growth kinetics of feline immunodeficiency virus are linked to 3' elements. PLoS One 2011; 6:e24020 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Tanabe T, Yamamoto JK. Phenotypic and functional characteristics of FIV infection in the bone marrow stroma. Virology 2001; 282:113–122 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Beebe AM, Gluckstern TG, George J, Pedersen NC, Dandekar S. Detection of feline immunodeficiency virus infection in bone marrow of cats. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 1992; 35:37–49 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Miller C, Bielefeldt-Ohmann H, Macmillan M, Huitron-Resendiz S, Henriksen S et al. Strain-specific viral distribution and neuropathology of feline immunodeficiency virus. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2011; 143:282–291 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Calcagno A, Di Perri G, Bonora S. Treating HIV infection in the central nervous system. Drugs 2017; 77:145–157 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Rao VR, Ruiz AP, Prasad VR. Viral and cellular factors underlying neuropathogenesis in HIV associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). AIDS Res Ther 2014; 11:13 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Hein A, Martin JP, Dörries R. Early pathological changes in the central nervous system of acutely feline-immunodeficiency-virus-infected cats. Virology 2005; 343:162–170 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Pistello M, Matteucci D, Cammarota G, Mazzetti P, Giannecchini S et al. Kinetics of replication of a partially attenuated virus and of the challenge virus during a three-year intersubtype feline immunodeficiency virus superinfection experiment in cats. J Virol 1999; 73:1518–1527[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Eckstrand C, Hillman C, Murphy B. Sequence instability in the proviral long terminal repeat and gag regions from peripheral blood and tissue-derived leukocytes of FIV-infected cats during the late asymptomatic phase. Vet Sci 2016; 3:10 [View Article]
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Ammersbach M, Bienzle D. Methods for assessing feline immunodeficiency virus infection, infectivity and purification. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2011; 143:202–214 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Bruner KM, Hosmane NN, Siliciano RF. Towards an HIV-1 cure: measuring the latent reservoir. Trends Microbiol 2015; 23:192–203 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Siliciano JD, Siliciano RF. Enhanced Culture Assay for Detection and Quantitation of Latently Infected, Resting Virus in HIV-1-Infected Individuals. In Zhu T. (editor) Methods in Molecular Biology Totowa, NJ: Humana Press; 2005 pp. 3–15
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Laird GM, Eisele EE, Rabi SA, Lai J, Chioma S et al. Rapid quantification of the latent reservoir for HIV-1 using a viral outgrowth assay. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003398 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Ho YC, Shan L, Hosmane NN, Wang J, Laskey SB et al. Replication-competent noninduced proviruses in the latent reservoir increase barrier to HIV-1 cure. Cell 2013; 155:540–551 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Miller MM, Fogle JE. Administration of Fozivudine tidoxil as a single-agent therapeutic during acute feline immunodeficiency virus infection does not alter chronic infection. Viruses 2012; 4:954–962 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Freer G, Matteucci D, Mazzetti P, Tarabella F, Ricci E et al. Immunotherapy with internally inactivated virus loaded dendritic cells boosts cellular immunity but does not affect feline immunodeficiency virus infection course. Retrovirology 2008; 5:33 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Kraase M, Sloan R, Klein D, Logan N, Mcmonagle L et al. Feline immunodeficiency virus env gene evolution in experimentally infected cats. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2010; 134:96–106 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Pecon-Slattery J, Troyer JL, Johnson WE, O'Brien SJ. Evolution of feline immunodeficiency virus in Felidae: implications for human health and wildlife ecology. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2008; 123:32–44 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Ikeda Y, Tomonaga K, Kawaguchi Y, Kohmoto M, Inoshima Y et al. Feline immunodeficiency virus can infect a human cell line (MOLT-4) but establishes a state of latency in the cells. J Gen Virol 1996; 77:1623–1630 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Tochikura TS, Naito Y, Kozutsumi Y, Hohdatsu T. Induction of feline immunodeficiency virus from a chronically infected feline T-lymphocyte cell line. Res Vet Sci 2012; 92:327–332 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Assogba BD, Leavell S, Porter K, Burkhard MJ. Mucosal administration of low-dose cell-associated feline immunodeficiency virus promotes viral latency. J Infect Dis 2007; 195:1184–1188 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Tomonaga K, Inoshima Y, Ikeda Y, Mikami T. Temporal patterns of feline immunodeficiency virus transcripts in peripheral blood cells during the latent stage of infection. J Gen Virol 1995; 76:2193–2204 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Mcdonnel SJ, Sparger EE, Luciw PA, Murphy BG. Transcriptional regulation of latent feline immunodeficiency virus in peripheral CD4+ T-lymphocytes. Viruses 2012; 4:878–888 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Mcdonnel SJ, Liepnieks ML, Murphy BG. Treatment of chronically FIV-infected cats with suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid. Antiviral Res 2014; 108:74–78 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Mcdonnel SJ, Sparger EE, Luciw PA, Murphy BG. Pharmacologic reactivation of latent feline immunodeficiency virus ex vivo in peripheral CD4+ T-lymphocytes. Virus Res 2012; 170:174–179 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Chan CN, Mcmonagle EL, Hosie MJ, Willett BJ. Prostratin exhibits both replication enhancing and inhibiting effects on FIV infection of feline CD4+ T-cells. Virus Res 2013; 171:121–128 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Lenasi T, Contreras X, Peterlin BM. Transcriptional interference antagonizes proviral gene expression to promote HIV latency. Cell Host Microbe 2008; 4:123–133 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Zhang Z, Klatt A, Gilmour DS, Henderson AJ. Negative elongation factor NELF represses human immunodeficiency virus transcription by pausing the RNA polymerase II complex. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:16981–16988 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Hakre S, Chavez L, Shirakawa K, Verdin E. Epigenetic regulation of HIV latency. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 2011; 6:19–24 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Kang Y, Moressi CJ, Scheetz TE, Xie L, Tran DT et al. Integration site choice of a feline immunodeficiency virus vector. J Virol 2006; 80:8820–8823 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/jgv.0.000866
Loading
/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/jgv.0.000866
Loading

Data & Media loading...

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error