In 1988, it was reported that the full nucleotide sequences of 18 hepatitis B virus (HBV) strains clustered into four genetic groups (A to D) with more than 8% divergence between the groups. This classification of strains in terms of genome sequence has since proven to be an important tool in the understanding of HBV epidemiology and evolution and has been expanded to include three more genotypes. In parallel with the HBV genotypes described in humans, HBV strains isolated from different primates and hepadnaviruses found in woodchucks, ground squirrels, ducks and herons have been studied. Sequence differences between HBV genotypes can lead to structural differences at the level of the pregenome and can also lead to dramatic differences at the translational level when specific and commonly occurring mutations occur. There is increasing evidence that the clinical picture, the response to treatment and the long-term prognosis may differ depending on which genotype has infected the patient. The consideration of traditional serological patterns in a patient must therefore take the genotype of the infecting strain into account. Nucleotide variability between HBV strains has been used in several studies to trace routes of transmission and, since it is becoming increasingly clear that the differences between HBV genotypes are important, the need for reliable and easy methods of differentiating HBV genotypes has arisen. This review summarizes the knowledge of HBV genotypes with regard to their genetic, structural and clinically significant differences and their origin and evolution in the context of the hepadnaviruses in general.
AlestigE.,
HannounC.,
HoralP.,
LindhM.2001; Phylogenetic origin of hepatitis B virus strains with precore C-1858 variant. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 39:3200–3203
Arauz-RuizP.,
NorderH.,
VisonaK. A.,
MagniusL. O.1997a; Genotype F prevails in HBV infected patients of hispanic origin in Central America and may carry the precore stop mutant. Journal of Medical Virology 51:305–312
Arauz-RuizP.,
NorderH.,
VisonaK. A.,
MagniusL. O.1997b; Molecular epidemiology of hepatitis B virus in Central America reflected in the genetic variability of the small S gene. Journal of Infectious Diseases 176:851–858
ArgentiniC.,
La SorsaV.,
BruniR.,
D′UgoE.,
GuiseppettiR.,
RapicettaM.1999; Hepadnavirus evolution and molecular strategy of adaptation in a new host. Journal of General Virology 80:617–626
Ashton-RickardtP. G.,
MurrayK.1989a; Mutants of the hepatitis B virus surface antigen that define some antigenically essential residues in the immunodominant a region. Journal of Medical Virology 29:196–203
Ashton-RickardtP. G.,
MurrayK.1989b; Mutations that change the immunological subtype of hepatitis B virus surface antigen and distinguish between antigenic and immunogenic determination. Journal of Medical Virology 29:204–214
BahnA.,
GernerP.,
MartineU.,
BortolottiF.,
WirthS.1997; Detection of different viral strains of hepatitis B virus in chronically infected children after seroconversion from HBsAg to anti-HBs indicating viral persistence. Journal of Hepatology 27:973–978
BläckbergJ.,
Kidd-LjunggrenK.2000a; Genotypic differences in the hepatitis B virus core promoter and precore sequences during seroconversion from HBeAg to anti-HBe. Journal of Medical Virology 60:107–112
BläckbergJ.,
Kidd-LjunggrenK.2000b; Occult hepatitis B virus after acute self-limited infection persisting for 30 years without sequence variation. Journal of Hepatology 33:992–997
BläckbergJ.,
BraconierJ. H.,
WidellA.,
Kidd-LjunggrenK.2000; Long-term outcome of acute hepatitis B and C in an outbreak of hepatitis in 1969–72. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 19:21–26
BlitzL.,
PujolF. H.,
SwensonP. D.,
PortoL.,
AtencioR.,
AraujoM.,
CostaL.,
MonsalveD. C.,
TorresJ. R.,
FieldsH. A.,
LambertS.,
Van GeytC.,
NorderH.,
MagniusL. O.,
EchevarriaJ. M.,
StuyverL.1998; Antigenic diversity of hepatitis B virus strains of genotype F in Amerindians and other population groups from Venezuela. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 36:648–651
BollykyP. L.,
RambautA.,
HarveyP. H.,
HolmesE. C.1996; Recombination between sequences of hepatitis B virus from different genotypes. Journal of Molecular Evolution 42:97–102
Borchani-ChabchoubI.,
GargouriA.,
Mokdad-GargouriR.2000; Genotyping of Tunisian hepatitis B virus isolates based on the sequencing of preS2 and S regions. Microbes and Infection 2:607–612
BowyerS. M.,
SimJ. G.2000; Relationships within and between genotypes of hepatitis B virus at points across the genome: footprints of recombination in certain isolates. Journal of General Virology 81:379–392
BowyerS. M.,
van StadenL.,
KewM. C.,
SimJ. G.1997; A unique segment of the hepatitis B virus group A genotype identified in isolates from South Africa. Journal of General Virology 78:1719–1729
BrechotC.,
PourcelC.,
LouiseA.,
RainB.,
TiollaisP.1980; Presence of integrated hepatitis B virus sequences in cellular DNA of human hepatocellular carcinoma. Nature 286:533–535
CarmanW. F.,
JacynaM. R.,
HadziyannisS.,
KarayiannisP.,
McGarveyM. J.,
MakrisA.,
ThomasH. C.1989; Mutation preventing formation of hepatitis B e antigen in patients with chronic hepatitis B infection. Lancet 2:588–591
ChanH. L.,
HussainM.,
LokA. S.1999; Different hepatitis B virus genotypes are associated with different mutations in the core promoter and precore regions during hepatitis B e antigen seroconversion. Hepatology 29:976–984
ChangS.-F.,
NetterH. J.,
HildtE.,
SchusterR.,
SchaeferS.,
HsuY.-C.,
RangA.,
WillH.2001; Duck hepatitis B virus expresses a regulatory HBx-like protein from a hidden open reading frame. Journal of Virology 75:161–170
DingX.,
MizokamiM.,
YaoG.,
XuB.,
OritoE.,
UedaR.,
NakanishiM.2001; Hepatitis B virus genotype distribution among chronic hepatitis B virus carriers in Shanghai, China. Intervirology 44:43–47
FlodgrenE.,
BengtssonS.,
KnutssonM.,
StrebkovaE. A.,
KiddA. H.,
AlexeyevO. A.,
Kidd-LjunggrenK.2000; Recent high incidence of fulminant hepatitis in Samara, Russia: molecular analysis of prevailing hepatitis B and D virus strains. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 38:3311–3316
FriedtM.,
GernerP.,
LauschE.,
TrubelH.,
ZabelB.,
WirthS.1999; Mutations in the basic core promotor and the precore region of hepatitis B virus and their selection in children with fulminant and chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 29:1252–1258
GalibertF.,
ChenT. N.,
MandartE.1982; Nucleotide sequence of a cloned woodchuck hepatitis virus genome: comparison with the hepatitis B virus sequence. Journal of Virology 41:51–65
Georgi-GeisbergerP.,
BernsH.,
LoncarevicI. F.,
YuZ. Y.,
TangZ. Y.,
ZentgrafH.,
SchroderC. H.1992; Mutations on free and integrated hepatitis B virus DNA in a hepatocellular carcinoma: footprints of homologous recombination. Oncology 49:386–395
GernerP. R.,
FriedtM.,
OettingerR.,
LauschE.,
WirthS.1998; The hepatitis B virus seroconversion to anti-HBe is frequently associated with HBV genotype changes and selection of preS2-defective particles in chronically infected children. Virology 245:163–172
GrandjacquesC.,
PradatP.,
StuyverL.,
ChevallierM.,
ChevallierP.,
PichoudC.,
MaisonnasM.,
TrepoC.,
ZoulimF.2000; Rapid detection of genotypes and mutations in the pre-core promoter and the pre-core region of hepatitis B virus genome: correlation with viral persistence and disease severity. Journal of Hepatology 33:430–439
GretheS.,
HeckelJ. O.,
RietschelW.,
HufertF. T.2000; Molecular epidemiology of hepatitis B virus variants in nonhuman primates. Journal of Virology 74:5377–5381
GüntherS.,
SommerG.,
IwanskaA.,
WillH.1997; Heterogeneity and common features of defective hepatitis B virus genomes derived from spliced pregenomic RNA. Virology 238:363–371
HannounC.,
NorderH.,
LindhM.2000b; An aberrant genotype revealed in recombinant hepatitis B virus strains from Vietnam. Journal of General Virology 81:2267–2272
HarpazR.,
Von SeidleinL.,
AverhoffF. M.,
TormeyM. P.,
SinhaS. D.,
KotsopoulouK.,
LambertS. B.,
RobertsonB. H.,
CherryJ. D.,
ShapiroC. N.1996; Transmission of hepatitis B virus to multiple patients from a surgeon without evidence of inadequate infection control. New England Journal of Medicine 334:549–554
HawkinsA. E.,
ZuckermanM. A.,
BriggsM.,
GilsonR. J.,
GoldstoneA. H.,
BrinkN. S.,
TedderR. S.1996; Hepatitis B nucleotide sequence analysis: linking an outbreak of acute hepatitis B to contamination of a cryopreservation tank. Journal of Virological Methods 60:81–88
HeermannK.-H.,
GerlichW. H.1991; Surface proteins of hepatitis B viruses. In Molecular Biology of the Hepatitis B Virus pp 109–143 Edited by
McLachlanA.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press;
HuX.,
MargolisH. S.,
PurcellR. H.,
EbertJ.,
RobertsonB. H.2000; Identification of hepatitis B virus indigenous to chimpanzees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 97:1661–1664
IshimaruY.,
IshimaruH.,
TodaG.,
BabaK.,
MayumiM.1976; An epidemic of infantile papular acrodermatitis (Gianotti’s disease) in Japan associated with hepatitis-B surface antigen subtype ayw . Lancet i, 707-709
KaoJ. H.,
ChenP. J.,
LaiM. Y.,
ChenD. S.2000a; Hepatitis B genotypes correlate with clinical outcomes in patients with chronic hepatitis B. Gastroenterology 118:554–559
KaoJ. H.,
WuN. H.,
ChenP. J.,
LaiM. Y.,
ChenD. S.2000b; Hepatitis B genotypes and the response to interferon therapy. Journal of Hepatology 33:998–1002
KatoH.,
OritoE.,
SugauchiF.,
UedaR.,
GishR. G.,
UsudaS.,
MiyakawaY.,
MizokamiM.2001; Determination of hepatitis B virus genotype G by polymerase chain reaction with hemi-nested primers. Journal of Virological Methods 98:153–159
KiddA. H.,
Kidd-LjunggrenK.1996; A revised secondary structure model for the 3′-end of hepatitis B virus pregenomic RNA. Nucleic Acids Research 24:3295–3301
Kidd-LjunggrenK.,
ObergM.,
KiddA. H.1995; The hepatitis B virus X gene: analysis of functional domain variation and gene phylogeny using multiple sequences. Journal of General Virology 76:2119–2130
Kidd-LjunggrenK.,
BromanE.,
EkvallH.,
GustavssonO.1999; Nosocomial transmission of hepatitis B virus infection through multiple-dose vials. Journal of Hospital Infection 43:57–62
Kidd-LjunggrenK.,
ZukerM.,
HofackerI. L.,
KiddA. H.2000; The hepatitis B virus pregenome: prediction of RNA structure and implications for the emergence of deletions. Intervirology 43:154–164
KoibuchiT.,
HitaniA.,
NakamuraT.,
NojiriN.,
NakajimaK.,
JyujiT.,
IwamotoA.2001; Predominance of genotype A HBV in an HBV-HIV-1 dually positive population compared with an HIV-1-negative counterpart in Japan. Journal of Medical Virology 64:435–440
KosakaY.,
TakaseK.,
KojimaM.,
ShimizuM.,
InoueK.,
YoshibaM.,
TanakaS.,
AkahaneY.,
OkamotoH.,
TsudaF.,
MiyakawaY.,
MayumiM.1991; Fulminant hepatitis B: induction by hepatitis B virus mutants defective in the precore region and incapable of encoding e antigen. Gastroenterology 100:1087–1094
LanfordR. E.,
ChavezD.,
BraskyK. M.,
BurnsR. B.III.,
Rico-HesseR.1998; Isolation of a hepadnavirus from the woolly monkey, a New World primate. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 95:5757–5761
LiJ. S.,
TongS. P.,
WenY. M.,
VitvitskiL.,
ZhangQ.,
TrepoC.1993; Hepatitis B virus genotype A rarely circulates as an HBe-minus mutant: possible contribution of a single nucleotide in the precore region. Journal of Virology 67:5402–5410
LindhM.,
AnderssonA. S.,
GusdalA.1997; Genotypes, nt 1858 variants, and geographic origin of hepatitis B virus: large-scale analysis using a new genotyping method. Journal of Infectious Diseases 175:1285–1293
LindhM.,
GonzalezJ. E.,
NorkransG.,
HoralP.1998; Genotyping of hepatitis B virus by restriction pattern analysis of a pre-S amplicon. Journal of Virological Methods 72:163–174
LindhM.,
HannounC.,
DhillonA. P.,
NorkransG.,
HoralP.1999; Core promoter mutations and genotypes in relation to viral replication and liver damage in East Asian hepatitis B virus carriers. Journal of Infectious Diseases 179:775–782
LiuH. F.,
SokalE.,
GoubauP.2001; Wide variety of genotypes and geographic origins of hepatitis B virus in Belgian children. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 32:274–277
LöfgrenB.,
NordenfeltE.,
LindholmT.,
LindergårdB.1982; A ten-year follow-up of a hepatitis B epidemic in a dialysis unit. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases 14:165–169
LokA.,
AkarcaU.,
GreeneS.1994; Mutations in the pre-core region of the hepatitis B virus serve to enhance the stability of the secondary structure of the pre-genome encapsidation signal. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 91:4077–4081
MacDonaldD. M.,
HolmesE. C.,
LewisJ. C.,
SimmondsP.2000; Detection of hepatitis B virus infection in wild-born chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes verus ): phylogenetic relationships with human and other primate genotypes. Journal of Virology 74:4253–4257
McIntoshE. D.,
GivneyR.,
ZhangS. S.,
CouroucéA. M.,
BurgessM.,
CossartY. E.1998; Molecular epidemiology and variation of hepatitis B in recent immigrant families to Australia. Journal of Medical Virology 56:10–17
McMillanJ. S.,
BowdenD. S.,
AngusP. W.,
McCaughanG. W.,
LocarniniS. A.1996; Mutations in the hepatitis B virus precore/core gene and core promoter in patients with severe recurrent disease following liver transplantation. Hepatology 24:1371–1378
MarionP. L.,
OshiroL. S.,
RegneryD. C.,
ScullardG. H.,
RobinsonW. S.1980; A virus in Beechey ground squirrels that is related to hepatitis B virus in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 77:2941–2945
MasonW. S.,
SealG.,
SummersJ.1980; Virus of Pekin ducks with structural and biochemical relatedness to human hepatitis B virus. Journal of Virology 36:829–836
MayeratC.,
ManteganiA.,
FreiP. C.1999; Does hepatitis B virus (HBV) genotype influence the clinical outcome of HBV infection?. Journal of Viral Hepatitis 6:299–304
MbayedV. A.,
LopezJ. L.,
TelentaP. F.,
PalaciosG.,
BadiaI.,
FerroA.,
GaloppoC.,
CamposR.1998; Distribution of hepatitis B virus genotypes in two different pediatric populations from Argentina. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 36:3362–3365
MizokamiM.,
OritoE.,
OhbaK.,
IkeoK.,
LauJ. Y.,
GojoboriT.1997; Constrained evolution with respect to gene overlap of hepatitis B virus. Journal of Molecular Evolution 44:S83–S90
NaitoH.,
HayashiS.,
AbeK.2001; Rapid and specific genotyping system for hepatitis B virus corresponding to six major genotypes by PCR using type-specific primers. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 39:362–364
NakanoT.,
LuL.,
HuX.,
MizokamiM.,
OritoE.,
ShapiroC.,
HadlerS.,
RobertsonB.2001; Characterization of hepatitis B virus genotypes among Yucpa Indians in Venezuela. Journal of General Virology 82:359–365
NaumannH.,
SchaeferS.,
YoshidaC. F.,
GasparA. M.,
ReppR.,
GerlichW. H.1993; Identification of a new hepatitis B virus (HBV) genotype from Brazil that expresses HBV surface antigen subtype adw4 . Journal of General Virology 74:1627–1632
NielC.,
MoraesM. T.,
GasparA. M.,
YoshidaC. F.,
GomesS. A.1994; Genetic diversity of hepatitis B virus strains isolated in Rio de Janeiro. Brazil. Journal of Medical Virology 44:180–186
NoguchiA.,
HayashiJ.,
NakashimaK.,
HirataM.,
IkematsuH.,
KashiwagiS.1994; HBsAg subtypes among HBsAg carriers in Okinawa, Japan. Evidence of an important relationship in seroconversion from HBeAg to anti-HBe. Journal of Infection 28:141–150
NorderH.,
HammasB.,
MagniusL. O.1991; Subtyping of HBV at the genomic level by site-directed amplification. In Viral Hepatitis and Liver Disease pp 195–199 Edited by
HollingerS. B.
Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins;
NorderH.,
CouroucéA.-M.,
MagniusL. O.1992a; Molecular basis of hepatitis B virus serotype variations within the four major subtypes. Journal of General Virology 73:3141–3145
NorderH.,
HammasB.,
LöfdahlS.,
CouroucéA. M.,
MagniusL. O.1992b; Comparison of the amino acid sequences of nine different serotypes of hepatitis B surface antigen and genomic classification of the corresponding hepatitis B virus strains. Journal of General Virology 73:1201–1208
NorderH.,
CouroucéA. M.,
MagniusL. O.1993a; Complete nucleotide sequences of six hepatitis B viral genomes encoding the surface antigen subtypes ayw4 , adw4q− , and adrq− and their phylogenetic classification. Archives of Virology Supplement 8:189–199
NorderH.,
HammasB.,
LeeS. D.,
BileK.,
CouroucéA. M.,
MushahwarI. K.,
MagniusL. O.1993b; Genetic relatedness of hepatitis B viral strains of diverse geographical origin and natural variations in the primary structure of the surface antigen. Journal of General Virology 74:1341–1348
NorderH.,
CouroucéA. M.,
MagniusL. O.1994; Complete genomes, phylogenetic relatedness, and structural proteins of six strains of the hepatitis B virus, four of which represent two new genotypes. Virology 198:489–503
NorderH.,
EbertJ. W.,
FieldsH. A.,
MushahwarI. K.,
MagniusL. O.1996; Complete sequencing of a gibbon hepatitis B virus genome reveals a unique genotype distantly related to the chimpanzee hepatitis B virus. Virology 218:214–223
OdemuyiwaS. O.,
MuldersM. N.,
OyedeleO. I.,
OlaS. O.,
OdaiboG. N.,
OlaleyeD. O.,
MullerC. P.2001; Phylogenetic analysis of new hepatitis B virus isolates from Nigeria supports endemicity of genotype E in West Africa. Journal of Medical Virology 65:463–469
OgataN.,
MillerR. H.,
IshakK. G.,
PurcellR. H.1993; The complete nucleotide sequence of a pre-core mutant of hepatitis B virus implicated in fulminant hepatitis and its biological characterization in chimpanzees. Virology 194:263–276
OkamotoH.,
ImaiM.,
KametaniM.,
NakamuraT.,
MayumiM.1987a; Genomic heterogeneity of hepatitis B virus in a 54-year-old woman who contracted the infection through materno–fetal transmission. Japanese Journal of Experimental Medicine 57:231–236
OkamotoH.,
ImaiM.,
MiyakawaY.,
MayumiM.1987b; Site-directed mutagenesis of hepatitis B surface antigen sequence at codon 160 from arginine to lysine for conversion of subtypic determinant from r to w . Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 148:500–504
OkamotoH.,
ImaiM.,
TsudaF.,
TanakaT.,
MiyakawaY.,
MayumiM.1987c; Point mutation in the S gene of hepatitis B virus for d / y or w / r subtypic change in two blood donors carrying a surface antigen of compound subtype adyr or adwr . Journal of Virology 61:3030–3034
OkamotoH.,
TsudaF.,
SakugawaH.,
SastrosoewignjoR. I.,
ImaiM.,
MiyakawaY.,
MayumiM.1988; Typing hepatitis B virus by homology in nucleotide sequence: comparison of surface antigen subtypes. Journal of General Virology 69:2575–2583
OkamotoH.,
OmiS.,
WangY.,
ItohY.,
TsudaF.,
TanakaT.,
AkahaneY.,
MiyakawaY.,
MayumiM.1989; The loss of subtypic determinants in alleles, d / y or w / r , on hepatitis B surface antigen. Molecular Immunology 26:197–205
OkamotoH.,
TsudaF.,
AkahaneY.,
SugaiY.,
YoshibaM.,
MoriyamiK.,
TanakaT.1994; Hepatitis B virus with mutations in the core promoter for an e antigen-negative phenotype in carriers with antibody to e antigen. Journal of Virology 68:8102–8110
OritoE.,
MizokamiM.,
InaY.,
MoriyamaE. N.,
KameshimaN.,
YamamotoM.,
GojoboriT.1989; Host-independent evolution and a genetic classification of the hepadnavirus family based on nucleotide sequences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 86:7059–7062
OritoE.,
MizokamiM.,
SakugawaH.,
MichitakaK.,
IshikawaK.,
IchidaT.,
OkanoueT.,
YotsuyanagiH.,
IinoS.2001b; A case-control study for clinical and molecular biological differences between hepatitis B viruses of genotypes B and C. Japan HBV Genotype Research Group. Hepatology 33:218–223
OsterhausA. D.,
VosM. C.,
BalkA. H.,
de ManR. A.,
MoutonJ. W.,
RothbarthP. H.,
SchalmS. W.,
TomaelloA. M.,
NiestersH. G.,
VerbrughH. A.1998; Transmission of hepatitis B virus among heart transplant recipients during endomyocardial biopsy procedures. Journal of Heart and Lung Transplantation 17:158–166
OwireduW. K.,
KramvisA.,
KewM. C.2001; Hepatitis B virus DNA in serum of healthy black African adults positive for hepatitis B surface antibody alone: possible association with recombination between genotypes A and D. Journal of Medical Virology 64:441–454
PetzoldD. R.,
TautzB.,
WolfF.,
DrescherJ.1999; Infection chains and evolution rates of hepatitis B virus in cardiac transplant recipients infected nosocomially. Journal of Medical Virology 58:1–10
PultI.,
NetterH. J.,
BrunsM.,
PrassolovA.,
SirmaH.,
HohenbergH.,
ChangS. F.,
FrolichK.,
KroneO.,
KaletaE. F.,
WillH.2001b; Identification and analysis of a new hepadnavirus in white storks. Virology 289:114–128
RosmorducO.,
PetitM.-A.,
PolS.,
CapelF.,
BortolottiF.,
BerthelotP.,
BrechotC.,
KremsdorfD.1995; In vivo and in vitro expression of defective hepatitis B virus particles generated by spliced hepatitis B virus RNA. Hepatology 21:10–19
ShihJ. W.,
CheungL. C.,
AlterH. J.,
LeeL. M.,
GuJ. R.1991; Strain analysis of hepatitis B virus on the basis of restriction endonuclease analysis of polymerase chain reaction products. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 29:1640–1644
ShiinaS.,
FujinoH.,
KawabeT.,
TagawaK.,
UnumaT.,
YoneyamaM.,
OhmoriT.1991a; Relationship of HBsAg subtypes with HBeAg/anti-HBe status and chronic liver disease. II. Evaluation of epidemiological factors and suspected risk factors of liver dysfunction. American Journal of Gastroenterology 86:872–875
ShiinaS.,
FujinoH.,
UtaY.,
TagawaK.,
UnumaT.,
YoneyamaM.,
OhmoriT.1991b; Relationship of HBsAg subtypes with HBeAg/anti-HBe status and chronic liver disease. I. Analysis of 1744 HBsAg carriers. American Journal of Gastroenterology 86:866–871
SommerG.,
van BommelF.,
WillH.2000; Genotype-specific synthesis and secretion of spliced hepatitis B virus genomes in hepatoma cells. Virology 271:371–381
SoussanP.,
GarreauF.,
ZylderbergH.,
FerrayC.,
BrechotC.,
KremsdorfD.2000; In vivo expression of a new hepatitis B virus protein encoded by a spliced RNA. Journal of Clinical Investigation 105:55–60
StuyverL.,
De GendtS.,
Van GeytC.,
ZoulimF.,
FriedM.,
SchinaziR. F.,
RossauR.2000; A new genotype of hepatitis B virus: complete genome and phylogenetic relatedness. Journal of General Virology 81:67–74
SugauchiF.,
MizokamiM.,
OritoE.,
OhnoT.,
KatoH.,
SuzukiS.,
KimuraY.,
UedaR.,
ButterworthL. A.,
CooksleyW. G. E.2001; A novel variant genotype C of hepatitis B virus identified in isolates from Australian Aborigines: complete genome sequence and phylogenetic relatedness. Journal of General Virology 82:883–892
SummersJ.,
SmolecJ. M.,
SnyderR.1978; A virus similar to human hepatitis B virus associated with hepatitis and hepatoma in woodchucks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 75:4533–4537
TakahashiK.,
BrotmanB.,
UsudaS.,
MishiroS.,
PrinceA. M.2000; Full-genome sequence analyses of hepatitis B virus (HBV) strains recovered from chimpanzees infected in the wild: implications for an origin of HBV. Virology 267:58–64
TelesS. A.,
MartinsR. M.,
VanderborghtB.,
StuyverL.,
GasparA. M.,
YoshidaC. F.1999; Hepatitis B virus: genotypes and subtypes in Brazilian hemodialysis patients. Artificial Organs 23:1074–1078
TestutP.,
RenardC.-A.,
TerradillosO.,
Vitvitski-TrepoL.,
TekaiaF.,
DegottC.,
BlakeJ.,
BoyerB.,
BuendiaM. A.1996; A new hepadnavirus endemic in Arctic ground squirrels in Alaska. Journal of Virology 70:4210–4219
TheamboonlersA.,
JantaradsameeP.,
Kaew-InN.,
TangkijvanichP.,
HirschP.,
PoovorawanY.1999; The predominant genotypes of hepatitis B virus in Thailand. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 93:737–743
ThomasH. C.,
ScullyL. J.,
LeverA. M. L.,
YapI.,
PignatelliM.1987; A review of the efficacy of adenine arabinoside and lymphoblastoid interferon in the Royal Free Hospital studies of hepatitis B virus carrier treatment: identification of factors influencing response rates. Infection 15:S26–S31
TiollaisP.,
BuendiaM.-A.,
BrechotC.,
DejeanA.,
MichelM.-C.,
PourcelC.1988; Structure, genetic organization, and transcription of hepadna viruses. In Viral Hepatitis and Liver Diease pp 295–300 Edited by
ZuckermanA. J.
New York: Alan R. Liss;
TobeK.,
MatsuuraK.,
OguraT.,
TsuoY.,
IwasakiY.,
MizunoM.,
YamamotoK.,
HigashiT.,
TsujiT.2000; Horizontal transmission of hepatitis B virus among players of an American football team. Archives of Internal Medicine 160:2541–2545
TsubotaA.,
AraseY.,
RenF.,
TanakaH.,
IkedaK.,
KumadaH.2001; Genotype may correlate with liver carcinogenesis and tumor characteristics in cirrhotic patients infected with hepatitis B virus subtype adw . Journal of Medical Virology 65:257–265
UsudaS.,
OkamotoH.,
IwanariH.,
BabaK.,
TsudaF.,
MiyakawaY.,
MayumiM.1999; Serological detection of hepatitis B virus genotypes by ELISA with monoclonal antibodies to type-specific epitopes in the preS2-region product. Journal of Virological Methods 80:97–112
UsudaS.,
OkamotoH.,
TanakaT.,
Kidd-LjunggrenK.,
HollandP. V.,
MiyakawaY.,
MayumiM.2000; Differentiation of hepatitis B virus genotypes D and E by ELISA using monoclonal antibodies to epitopes on the preS2-region product. Journal of Virological Methods 87:81–89
UyA.,
WunderlichG.,
OlsenD. B.,
HeermannK. H.,
GerlichW. H.,
ThomssenR.1992; Genomic variability in the preS1 region and determination of routes of transmission of hepatitis B virus. Journal of General Virology 73:3005–3009
VaudinM.,
WolstenholmeA. J.,
TsiquayeK. N.,
ZuckermanA. J.,
HarrisonT. J.1988; The complete nucleotide sequence of the genome of a hepatitis B virus isolated from a naturally infected chimpanzee. Journal of General Virology 69:1383–1389
VerschoorE. J.,
WarrenK. S.,
LangenhuijzenS.,
HeriyantoSwan.,
AR,
HeeneyJ. L.2001; Analysis of two genomic variants of orang-utan hepadnavirus and their relationship to other primate hepatitis B-like viruses. Journal of General Virology 82:893–897
von WeizsäckerF.,
PultI.,
GeissK.,
WirthS.,
BlumH. E.1995; Selective transmission of variant genomes from mother to infant in neonatal fulminant hepatitis B. Hepatology 21:8–13
WarrenK. S.,
HeeneyJ. L.,
SwanR. A.,
Heriyanto & VerschoorE. J.
1999; A new group of hepadnaviruses naturally infecting orangutans ( Pongo pygmaeus ). Journal of Virology 73:7860–7865
YuasaR.,
TakahashiK.,
DienB. V.,
BinhN. H.,
MorishitaT.,
SatoK.,
YamamotoN.,
IsomuraS.,
YoshiokaK.,
IshikawaT.,
MishiroS.,
KakumuS.2000; Properties of hepatitis B virus genome recovered from Vietnamese patients with fulminant hepatitis in comparison with those of acute hepatitis. Journal of Medical Virology 61:23–28