Introduction. Negative-strand RNA viruses are a large and diverse group of enveloped viruses of both medical and economic significance. They are found in hosts from the plant and animal kingdoms, and have a wide range of morphologies, biological properties and genome organizations. A major distinction is made between viruses whose genome consists of a single RNA molecule (order Mononegavirales), including the families Rhabdoviridae, Paramyxoviridae and Filoviridae, and those possessing multipartite (segmented) genomes, comprising the families Orthomyxoviridae (six to nine segments), Bunyaviridae (three segments) and Arenaviridae (two segments) (Pringle, 1991). Particular elements essential for their replication and gene expression have been retained throughout the negative-strand RNA viruses and illustrate that they have originated from a common ancestor (for review see Tordo et al., 1992). Genetic manipulation and analysis of negative-strand RNA virus biology has lagged far behind that of other RNA viruses.
AndinoR.,
SilveraD.,
SuggettS. D.,
AchacosoP. L.,
MillerC. J.,
BaltimoreD.,
FeinbergM. B.1994; Engineering poliovirus as a vaccine vector for the expression of diverse antigens. Science 265:1448–1451
BaltimoreD.,
HuangA. S.,
StampferM.1970; Ribonucleic acid synthesis of vesicular stomatitis virus, II. An RNA polymerase in the virion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A. 66:572–576
BaudinF.,
BachC.,
CusackS.,
RuigrokR. W.1994; Structure of influenza virus RNP. I. Influenza virus nucleoprotein melts secondary structure in panhandle RNA and exposes the bases to the solvent. EMBO Journal 13:3158–3165
CalainP.,
RouxL.1993; The rule of six, a basic feature for efficient replication of Sendai virus defective interfering RNA. Journal of Virology 67:4822–4830
CalainP.,
CurranJ.,
KolakofskyD.,
RouxL.1992; Molecular cloning of natural paramyxovirus copy-back defective interfering RNAs and their expression from DNA. Virology 191:62–71
CollinsP. L.,
MinkM. A.,
StecD. S.1991; Rescue of synthetic analogs of respiratory syncytial virus genomic RNA and effect of truncations and mutations on the expression of a foreign reporter gene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A 88:9663–9667
CollinsP. L.,
MinkM. A.,
HillM. G.III,
CamargoE.,
Grosfeld-H.,
StecD. S.1993; Rescue of a 7502–nucleotide (49.3 % of full-length) synthetic analog of respiratory syncytial virus genomic RNA. Virology 195:252–256
ConzelmannK.-K.,
CoxJ.-H.,
ThielH. J.1991; An L (polymerase) deficient rabies virus defective interfering particle RNA is replicated and transcribed by heterologous helper virus L proteins. Virology 184:655–663
CurranJ. A.,
BoeckR.,
KolakofskyD.1991; The Sendai virus P gene expresses both an essential protein and an inhibitor of RNA synthesis by shuffling modules via mRNA editing. EMBO Journal 10:3079–3085
DimockK.,
CollinsP. L.1993; Rescue of synthetic analogs of genomic RNA and replicative-intermediate RNA of human parainfluenza virus type 3. Journal of Virology 67:2772–2778
EnamiM.,
LuytjesW.,
KrystalM.,
PaleseP.1990; Introduction of site-specific mutations into the genome of influenza virus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 87:3802–3805
EngelhornM.,
StrickerR.,
RouxL.1993; Molecular cloning and characterization of a Sendai virus internal deletion defective RNA. Journal of General Virology 74:137–141
EvansD. H.,
StuartD.,
McFaddenG.1988; High levels of genetic recombination among cotransfected plasmid DNAs in poxvirus-infected mammalian cells. Journal of Virology 62:367–375
FuerstT. R.,
NilesE. G.,
StudierF. W.,
MossB.1986; Eukaryotic transient expression system based on recombinant vaccinia virus that synthesizes bacteriophage T7 RNA polymerase. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 83:8122–8126
GarcinD.,
PeletT.,
CalainP.,
SakaiY.,
ShiodaT.,
RouxL.,
CurranJ.,
KolakofskyD.1996; A highly recombinogenic system for the recovery of infectious Sendai paramyxovirus from cDNA; generation of a novel copy-back nondefective interfering virus. EMBO Journal (in press)
GershonP. D.,
AhnB. Y.,
GarfieldM.,
MossB.1991; Poly(A) polymerase and a dissociable polyadenylation stimulatory factor encoded by vaccinia virus. Cell 66:1269–1278
GrosfeldH.,
HillM. G.,
CollinsP. L.1995; RNA replication by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is directed by the N, P, and L proteins; transcription also occurs under these conditions but requires RSV superinfection for efficient synthesis of full-length mRNA. Journal of Virology 69:5677–5686
HartyR. N.,
PaleseP.1995; Mutations within noncoding terminal sequences of model RNAs of Sendai virus: influence on reporter gene expression. Journal of Virology 69:5128–5131
HorikamiS. M.,
CurranJ.,
KolakofskyD.,
MoyerS. A.1992; Complexes of Sendai virus NP–P and P-L proteins are required for defective interfering particle genome replication in vitro. Journal of Virology 66:4901–4908
KälinK.,
SpielhoferP.,
SchneiderH.,
RadeckeF.,
KunzC.,
SidhuM. S.,
DowlingP. C.,
UdemS. A.,
BilleterM. A.1994; Requirements for artificial measles virus mini- and midireplicons. Abstracts of the IXth International Conference on Negative Strand Viruses2–7 October Estoril; Portugal:
KapturP. E.,
McKenzieM. O.,
WertzG. W.,
LylesD. S.1995; Assembly functions of vesicular stomatitis virus matrix protein are not disrupted by mutations at major sites of phosphorylation. Virology 206:894–903
KuoL.,
GrosfeldH.,
ChristinaJ.,
AtreyaP.,
CollinsP.1994; Synthetic internal-deletion and copyback-minigenomes of human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV): RNA synthesis and cisacting sequences. Abstracts of the IXth International Conference on Negative Strand Viruses2–7 October Estoril; Portugal:
LawsonN. D.,
StillmanE. A.,
WhittM. A.,
RoseJ. K.1995; Recombinant vesicular stomatitis viruses from DNA. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 92:4477–4481
LopezN.,
MüllerR.,
PrehaudC.,
BouloyM.1995; The L protein of Rift Valley fever virus can rescue viral ribonucleoproteins and transcribe synthetic genome-like RNA molecules. Journal of Virology 69:3972–3979
LuytjesW.,
KrystalM.,
EnamiM.,
ParvinJ. D.,
PaleseP.1989; Amplification, expression, and packaging of a foreign gene by influenza virus. Cell 59:1107–1113
MebatsionT.,
SchnellM. J.,
ConzelmannK.-K.1995; Mokola virus glycoprotein and chimeric proteins can replace rabies virus glycoprotein in the rescue of infectious defective rabies virus particles. Journal of Virology 69:1444–1451
OwensR. J.,
RoseJ. K.1993; Cytoplasmic domain requirement for incorporation of a foreign envelope protein into vesicular stomatitis virus. Journal of Virology 67:360–365
ParkK. H.,
HuangT.,
CorreiaF. F.,
KrystalM.1991; Rescue of a foreign gene by Sendai virus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 88:5537–5541
PattnaikA. K.,
WertzG. W.1990; Replication and amplification of defective interfering particle RNAs of vesicular stomatitis virus in cells expressing viral proteins from vectors containing cloned cDNAs. Journal of Virology 64:2948–2957
PattnaikA. K.,
WertzG. W.1991; Cells that express all five proteins of vesicular stomatitis virus from cloned cDNAs support replication, assembly, and budding of defective interfering particles. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 88:1379–1383
PattnaikA. K.,
BallL. A.,
LegroneA. W.,
WertzG. W.1992; Infectious defective interfering particles of VSV from transcripts of a cDNA clone. Cell 69:1011–1020
PattnaikA. K.,
BallL. A.,
LegroneA.,
WertzG. W.1995; The termini of VSV DI particle RNAs are sufficient to signal RNA encapsidation, replication, and budding to generate infectious particles. Virology 206:760–764
PerrottaA. T.,
BeenM. D.1990; The self-cleaving domain from the genomic RNA of hepatitis delta virus: sequence requirements and the effects of denaturants. Nucleic Acids Research 18:6821–6827
PringleC. R.1991; The Mononegavirales. In Classification and Nomenclature of Viruses. Fifth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses pp. 239–262 Edited by
FranckiR. I. B.,
FauquetC. M.,
KnudsonD. L.,
BrownF.
Wien and New York: Springer-Verlag;
ProdyG. A.,
BakosJ. T.,
BuzayanJ. M.,
SchneiderI. R.,
BruenningG.1986; Autolytic processing of dimeric plant virus satellite RNA. Science 231:1577–1580
SidhuM. S.,
ChanJ.,
KaelinK.,
SpielhoferP.,
RadeckeF.,
SchneiderH.,
MasurekarM.,
DowlingP. C.,
BilleterM. A.,
UdemS. A.1995; Rescue of synthetic measles virus minireplicons: measles genomic termini direct efficient expression and propagation of a reporter gene. Virology 208:800–807
StillmanE. A.,
RoseJ. K.,
WhittM. A.1995; Replication and amplification of novel vesicular stomatitis virus minigenomes encoding viral structural proteins. Journal of Virology 69:2946–2953
WertzG. W.,
MeleroJ. A.1993; Workshop on ‘reverse genetics of negative stranded RNA viruses’ sponsored by the Juan March Institute, Madrid, Spain. Virus Research 30:215–219
WertzG. W.,
WhelanS.,
LegroneA.,
BallL. A.1995; Extent of terminal complementarity modulates the balance between transcription and replication of vesicular stomatitis virus RNA. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 91:8587–8591
WhelanS. P. J.,
BallL. A.,
BarrJ. N.,
WertzG. W.1995; Efficient recovery of infectious vesicular stomatitis virus entirely from cDNA clones. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 92:8388–8392
YuQ.,
HardyR. W.,
WertzG. W.1995; Functional cDNA clones of the human respiratory syncytial (RS) virus N, P, and L proteins support replication of RS virus genomic RNA analogs and define minimal trans-acting requirements for RNA replication. Journal of Virology692412–2419