1887

Access Microbiology open research platform logo

Volume 3, Issue 6

Antimicrobial resistance profiles and genetic basis of resistance among non-fastidious Gram-negative bacteria recovered from ready-to-eat foods in Kibera informal housing in Nairobi, Kenya Open Access

Abstract

This cross-sectional study conducted in Kibera, Kenya, sought to gain insights on relative microbial contamination levels of popular unprocessed food types, determine antimicrobial resistance (AMR) burden and the carriage of integrons that are essential elements for spreading antimicrobial resistance genes (ARG). Foods analysed consisted of cooked vegetables (kale, cabbage, and nightshades), boiled cereal foods (beans, rice, and Githeri, which is a mixture of beans and maize), meat, Omena fish (fried silver cyprinids), and Ugali (a product of simmered maize flour in boiled water).

The analysis detected contamination levels exceeding 2×10 c.f.u. ml in 106 (38 %) of the 281 ready-to-eat foods analysed. The majority of food types had microbial contaminations of between 4.0×10 and 2.3×10 c.f.u. ml. Kale was the most contaminated with a mean of 2.3×10 c.f.u. ml, while Omena was the least contaminated with 4.0×10 c.f.u. ml. Foods sold close to open sewage and refuse sites were more contaminated than those sold in relatively ‘cleaner’ settings ( <0.0001, O.R 0.1162, C.I 0.1162–0.120). A total of 405 bacterial isolates were recovered and included; spp 116 (29 %), 104 (26 %), 88 (22 %), 30 (7 %), spp 28 (7 %), 27 (7 %) and 12 (3 %). Imipenem (IPM, 100 %) was the most effective antimicrobial agent, followed by cefepime (98 %). Ampicillin (AMP, 33 %), trimethoprim (TMP, 27 %), and sulfamethoxazole (SMX, 23 %) on the other hand, were the least effective antimicrobials. The analysis also found ten isolates (2 %) that had co-resistance to third-generation cephalosporins, fluoroquinolone (CIP), quinolones (NAL) and aminoglycosides (GEN); hereby we refer to this phenotype as the βFQA. The prevalence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains was 23 % (93), while that of extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBL) producing strains was 4 % (17). The was the most prevalent (55 %) β-lactamase () gene among the screened 93 MDR-strains. Carriage of class one integrons (1) was more common (23 %) than 2 (3 %) among these MDR-strains. Bacterial diversity analysis using the GTG-PCR found no significant clusters for analysed and suggesting recovered isolates were genetically diverse and not due to non-clonal expansion. The findings of this study are an indication that contaminated foods can be a reservoir for enteric pathogens and a source of AMR strains.

  • Received:
  • Accepted:
  • Published Online:
Keyword(s): antimicrobial resistance (AMR) , antimicrobial resistance genes (ARG) , extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) , Kibera informal housing , microbial food contamination and multidrug-resistant strains (MDR)
© 2021 The Authors
  • This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License.
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journal/acmi/10.1099/acmi.0.000236
2021-06-11
2024-04-25
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/acmi/3/6/acmi000236.html?itemId=/content/journal/acmi/10.1099/acmi.0.000236&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

References

  1. Alegbeleye OO, Singleton I, Santgcona AS. Sources and contamination routes of microbial pathogens to fresh produce during field cultivation: A review. Food Microbiol 2018; 73:177–208 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Machado-Moreira B, Richards K, Brennan F, Abram F, Burgess CM. Microbial contamination of fresh produce: what, where, and how. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2019; 18:1727–1750 [View Article][PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  3. Jaffee S, Henson S, Unnevehr L, Grace D, Cassou E. The Safe Food Imperative: Accelerating Progress in Low-And Middle-Income Countries The World Bank; 2018
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Kirk MD, Pires SM, Black RE, Caipo M, Crump JA et al. World Health Organization estimates of the global and regional disease burden of 22 foodborne bacterial, protozoal, and viral diseases, 2010: a data synthesis. PLoS Med 2015; 12:e1001921
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Alimi BA. Risk factors in street food practices in developing countries: A review. Food Sci Hum Well 2016; 5:141–148 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Sharma I, Mazumdar JA. Assessment of bacteriological quality of ready to eat food vended in streets of Silchar city, Assam, India. Indian J Med Microbiol 2014; 32:169 [View Article][PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Doyle ME. Multidrug-resistant pathogens in the food supply. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2015; 12:261–279 [View Article][PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Yang X, Wu Q, Zhang J, Huang J, Chen L et al. Prevalence, bacterial load, and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella serovars isolated from retail meat and meat products in China. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:2121 [View Article][PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Cheng G, Ning J, Ahmed S, Huang J, Ullah R et al. Selection and dissemination of antimicrobial resistance in Agri-food production. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control 2019; 8:158 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Lekshmi M, Ammini P, Kumar S, Varela MF. The food production environment and the development of antimicrobial resistance in human pathogens of animal origin. Microorganisms 2017; 5:11 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Sabbagh P, Rajabnia M, Maali A, Ferdosi-Shahandashti E. Integron and its role in antimicrobial resistance; A literature review on some bacterial pathogens. Iran J Basic Med Sci 2020
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Gillings M, Boucher Y, Labbate M, Holmes A, Krishnan S et al. The evolution of class 1 integrons and the rise of antibiotic resistance. J Bacteriol 2008; 190:5095–5100 [View Article][PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Partridge SR, Kwong SM, Firth N, Jensen SO. Mobile genetic elements associated with antimicrobial resistance. Clin Microbiol Rev 2018; 31: [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Kiiru J, Kariuki S, Goddeeris BM, Butaye P. Analysis of β-lactamase phenotypes and carriage of selected β-lactamase genes among Escherichia coli strains obtained from Kenyan patients during an 18-year period. BMC Microbiol 2012; 12:155 [View Article][PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Langata LM, Maingi JM, Musonye HA, Kiiru J, Nyamache AK. Antimicrobial resistance genes in Salmonella and Escherichia coli isolates from chicken droppings in Nairobi, Kenya. BMC Res Notes 2019; 12:1–6 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Pitout JDD, Revathi G, Chow BL, Kabera B, Kariuki S et al. Metallo-β-lactamase-producing Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from a large tertiary centre in Kenya. Clin Microbiol Infect 2008; 14:755–759 [View Article][PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Maina JN. Mapping the distribution patterns of multiple-drug resistances gram-negative bacterial strains recoverable from food and environmental samples in Kibera informal settlements. Doctoral dissertation 2020
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Hemraj V, Diksha S, Avneet G. A review on commonly used biochemical tests for bacteria. Innovare J Life Sci 2013; 1:1–7
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Herrera AG. The hazard analysis and critical control point system in food safety. In In Public Health Microbiology Humana Press; 2004 pp 235–280
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Wayne PA. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute 2017
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Shaikh NK, Mundhada SG, Lalngaihzuali R, Ingole K. Comparison of different phenotypic methods for the detection of extended spectrum b-lactamase (ESBL) in bacterial isolates from tertiary care centre. Int J Curr Res 2016; 8:10
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Abdelhai MH, Hassanin HA, Sun X. Comparative study of rapid dna extraction methods of pathogenic bacteria. Am J Biosci Bioeng 2016; 4:1–8
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Kheyrodin H, Ghazvinian K. DNA purification and isolation of genomic DNA from bacterial species by plasmid purification system. Afr J Agric Res 2012; 7:433–442
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Mwangi NS. Antimicrobial resistance patterns and genetic basis of extended spectrum β-Lactamases in faecal Escherichia coli isolated from severely malnourished and Non-Malnourished children attending mbagathi district hospital, Nairobi. Doctoral dissertation, jkuat 2016
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Hasman H, Mevius D, Veldman K, Olesen I, Aarestrup FM. beta-Lactamases among extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-resistant Salmonella from poultry, poultry products and human patients in The Netherlands. J Antimicrob Chemother 2005; 56:115–121 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Mohapatra BR, Broersma K, Mazumder A. Comparison of five rep-PCR genomic fingerprinting methods for differentiation of fecal Escherichia coli from humans, poultry and wild birds. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2007; 277:98–106 [View Article][PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Taherikalani M, Maleki A, Sadeghifard N, Mohammadzadeh D, Soroush S et al. Dissemination of class 1, 2 and 3 integrons among different multidrug resistant isolates of Acinetobacter baumannii in Tehran hospitals, Iran. Pol J Microbiol 2011; 60:169–174[PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Yu T, Jiang X, Zhou Q, Wu J, Wu Z. Antimicrobial resistance, class 1 integrons, and horizontal transfer in Salmonella isolated from retail food in Henan, China. J Infect Dev Ctries 2014; 8:705–711 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Kathleen MM, Samuel L, Felecia C, Ng KH, Lesley MB et al. GTG 5)analy5-PCR16s analands16Squrrnabacteriseqofrom sarbactefromaculSarawaknmentaquaculture. Int Food Res J 2014; 21:
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Vaez H, Moghim S, Nasr Esfahani B, Ghasemian Safaei H. Clonal relatedness among imipenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from icu-hospitalized patients. Crit Care Res Pract 2015; 2015:983207 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Eromo T, Tassew H, Daka D, Kibru G. Bacteriological quality of street foods and antimicrobial resistance of isolates in Hawassa, Ethiopia. Ethiop J Health Sci 2016; 26:533–542 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Muoki MA, Tumuti DS, Rombo D. Nutrition and public hygiene among children under five years of age in Mukuru slums of Makadara Division. East Afr Med J 2008; 85:386–397 [View Article][PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Nyenje ME, Odjadjare CE, Tanih NF, Green E, Ndip RN. Foodborne pathogens recovered from ready-to-eat foods from roadside cafeterias and retail outlets in Alice, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa: public health implications. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2012; 9:2608–2619 [View Article][PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Qadir M, Wichelns D, Raschid-Sally L, McCornick PG, Drechsel P et al. The challenges of wastewater irrigation in developing countries. Agric Water Manag 2010; 97:561–568 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Nyokabi S, Birner R, Bett B, Isuyi L, Grace D et al. Informal value chain actors’ knowledge and perceptions about zoonotic diseases and biosecurity in Kenya and the importance for food safety and public health. Trop Anim Health Prod 2018; 50:509–518 [View Article][PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Samuel S, Moses N, Too E. Prevalence of Enterobacteriaceae Isolated from Childhood Diarrhoea in Mukuru Slums Nairobi-Kenya; 2019
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Kariuki EN. Bacteriological safety of street foods and factors associated with food contamination among street food vendors in Githurai and Gikomba markets. Doctoral dissertation, JKUAT-COHES 2018
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Olack B, Feikin DR, Cosmas LO, Odero KO, Okoth GO et al. Mortality trends observed in population-based surveillance of an urban slum settlement, Kibera, Kenya, 2007–2010. PLoS One 2014; 9:e85913 [View Article][PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Maina J, Ndung’u P, Muigai A, Onyango H, Mukaya JK et al. Antimicrobial profiles of selected gram-negative bacteria recoverable from sewage and sludge from Juja and Kibera informal settlements of the larger Nairobi metropolis. Adv Microbiol 2019; 9:507 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Odwar JA, Kikuvi G, Kariuki JN, Kariuki S. A cross-sectional study on the microbiological quality and safety of raw chicken meats sold in Nairobi, Kenya. BMC Res Notes 2014; 7:627 [View Article][PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Taitt CR, Leski TA, Erwin DP, Odundo EA, Kipkemoi NC et al. Antimicrobial resistance of Klebsiella pneumoniae stool isolates circulating in Kenya. Plos one 2017; 12:e0178880 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Kiiru J, Kariuki S, Goddeeris BM, Revathi G, Maina TW et al. Escherichia coli strains from Kenyan patients carrying conjugatively transferable broad-spectrum β-lactamase, qnr, aac(6’)-Ib-cr and 16S rRNA methyltransferase genes. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011; 66:1639–1642 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  43. Threlfall EJ, Ward LR, Frost JA, Willshaw GA. The emergence and spread of antibiotic resistance in foodborne bacteria. Int J Food Microbiol 2000; 62:1–5 [View Article][PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  44. Tajbakhsh E, Khamesipour F, Ranjbar R, Ugwu IC. Prevalence of class 1 and 2 integrons in multi-drug resistant Escherichia coli isolated from aquaculture water in Chaharmahal Va Bakhtiari province, Iran. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob 2015; 14:1–5 [View Article]
     [Google Scholar]
  45. Wu K, Wang F, Sun J, Wang Q, Chen Q et al. Class 1 integron gene cassettes in multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria in southern China. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2012; 40:264–267 [View Article][PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Richter L, Du Plessis EM, Duvenage S, Korsten L. Occurrence, phenotypic and molecular characterization of extended-spectrum-and AmpC-β-Lactamase producing Enterobacteriaceae isolated from selected commercial spinach supply chains in South Africa. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:638 [View Article][PubMed]
     [Google Scholar]
http://instance.metastore.ingenta.com/content/journal/acmi/10.1099/acmi.0.000236
Loading
Antimicrobial resistance profiles and genetic basis of resistance among non-fastidious Gram-negative bacteria recovered from ready-to-eat foods in Kibera informal housing in Nairobi, Kenya
Access Microbiology 3, 000236 (2021); https://doi.org/10.1099/acmi.0.000236
/content/journal/acmi/10.1099/acmi.0.000236
/content/journal/acmi/10.1099/acmi.0.000236
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Most cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error