1887

Abstract

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a blood-borne virus estimated to infect around 170 million people worldwide and is, therefore, a major disease burden. In some individuals the virus is spontaneously cleared during the acute phase of infection, whilst in others a persistent infection ensues. Of those persistently infected, severe liver diseases such as cirrhosis and primary liver cancer may develop, although many individuals remain asymptomatic. A range of factors shape the course of HCV infection, not least host genetic polymorphisms and host immunity. A number of studies have shown that neutralizing antibodies (nAb) arise during HCV infection, but that these antibodies differ in their breadth and mechanism of neutralization. Recent studies, using both mAbs and polyclonal sera, have provided an insight into neutralizing determinants and the likely protective role of antibodies during infection. This understanding has helped to shape our knowledge of the overall structure of the HCV envelope glycoproteins – the natural target for nAb. Most nAb identified to date target receptor-binding sites within the envelope glycoprotein E2. However, there is some evidence that other viral epitopes may be targets for antibody neutralization, suggesting the need to broaden the search for neutralization epitopes beyond E2. This review provides a comprehensive overview of our current understanding of the role played by nAb in HCV infection and disease outcome and explores the limitations in the study systems currently used. In addition, we briefly discuss the potential therapeutic benefits of nAb and efforts to develop nAb-based therapies.

  • This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/vir.0.035956-0
2012-01-01
2024-03-28
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/jgv/93/1/1.html?itemId=/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/vir.0.035956-0&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

References

  1. Abe Y., Takashita E., Sugawara K., Matsuzaki Y., Muraki Y., Hongo S. 2004; Effect of the addition of oligosaccharides on the biological activities and antigenicity of influenza A/H3N2 virus hemagglutinin. J Virol 78:9605–9611 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Adair R., Patel A. H., Corless L., Griffin S., Rowlands D. J., McCormick C. J. 2009; Expression of hepatitis C virus (HCV) structural proteins in trans facilitates encapsidation and transmission of HCV subgenomic RNA. J Gen Virol 90:833–842 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Albecka A., Montserret R., Krey T., Tarr A. W., Diesis E., Ball J. K., Descamps V., Duverlie G., Rey F. other authors 2011; Identification of new functional regions in hepatitis C virus envelope glycoprotein E2. J Virol 85:1777–1792 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Allander T., Drakenberg K., Beyene A., Rosa D., Abrignani S., Houghton M., Widell A., Grillner L., Persson M. A. 2000; Recombinant human monoclonal antibodies against different conformational epitopes of the E2 envelope glycoprotein of hepatitis C virus that inhibit its interaction with CD81. J Gen Virol 81:2451–2459[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Anonymous. 1999; Global surveillance and control of hepatitis C. Report of a WHO Consultation organized in collaboration with the Viral Hepatitis Prevention Board, Antwerp, Belgium. J Viral Hepat 6:35–47[PubMed] [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Ascione A., Tartaglione M. T., Di Costanzo G. G. 2007; Natural history of chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Dig Liver Dis 39:Suppl. 1S4–S7 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Bankwitz D., Steinmann E., Bitzegeio J., Ciesek S., Friesland M., Herrmann E., Zeisel M. B., Baumert T. F., Keck Z.-Y. other authors 2010; Hepatitis C virus hypervariable region 1 modulates receptor interactions, conceals the CD81 binding site, and protects conserved neutralizing epitopes. J Virol 84:5751–5763 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Barth H., Rybczynska J., Patient R., Choi Y., Sapp R. K., Baumert T. F., Krawczynski K., Liang T. J. 2011; Both innate and adaptive immunity mediate protective immunity against hepatitis C virus infection in chimpanzees. Hepatology 54:1135–1148 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Bartosch B., Bukh J., Meunier J.-C., Granier C., Engle R. E., Blackwelder W. C., Emerson S. U., Cosset F.-L., Purcell R. H. 2003a; In vitro assay for neutralizing antibody to hepatitis C virus: evidence for broadly conserved neutralization epitopes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100:14199–14204 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Bartosch B., Dubuisson J., Cosset F.-L. 2003b; Infectious hepatitis C virus pseudo-particles containing functional E1-E2 envelope protein complexes. J Exp Med 197:633–642 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Bartosch B., Vitelli A., Granier C., Goujon C., Dubuisson J., Pascale S., Scarselli E., Cortese R., Nicosia A., Cosset F. L. 2003c; Cell entry of hepatitis C virus requires a set of co-receptors that include the CD81 tetraspanin and the SR-B1 scavenger receptor. J Biol Chem 278:41624–41630 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Bartosch B., Verney G., Dreux M., Donot P., Morice Y., Penin F., Pawlotsky J.-M., Lavillette D., Cosset F.-L. 2005; An interplay between hypervariable region 1 of the hepatitis C virus E2 glycoprotein, the scavenger receptor BI, and high-density lipoprotein promotes both enhancement of infection and protection against neutralizing antibodies. J Virol 79:8217–8229 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Baumert T. F., Ito S., Wong D. T., Liang T. J. 1998; Hepatitis C virus structural proteins assemble into virus like particles in insect cells. J Virol 72:3827–3836[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Benedicto I., Molina-Jiménez F., Barreiro O., Maldonado-Rodríguez A., Prieto J., Moreno-Otero R., Aldabe R., López-Cabrera M., Majano P. L. 2008; Hepatitis C virus envelope components alter localization of hepatocyte tight junction-associated proteins and promote occludin retention in the endoplasmic reticulum. Hepatology 48:1044–1053 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Bjøro K., Frøland S. S., Yun Z., Samdal H. H., Haaland T. 1994; Hepatitis C infection in patients with primary hypogammaglobulinemia after treatment with contaminated immune globulin. N Engl J Med 331:1607–1611 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Blanchard E., Belouzard S., Goueslain L., Wakita T., Dubuisson J., Wychowski C., Rouillé Y. 2006; Hepatitis C virus entry depends on clathrin-mediated endocytosis. J Virol 80:6964–6972 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Bowen D. G., Walker C. M. 2005; Adaptive immune responses in acute and chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Nature 436:946–952 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Brimacombe C. L., Grove J., Meredith L. W., Hu K., Syder A. J., Flores M. V., Timpe J. M., Krieger S. E., Baumert T. F. other authors 2011; Neutralizing antibody-resistant hepatitis C virus cell-to-cell transmission. J Virol 85:596–605 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Broering T. J., Garrity K. A., Boatright N. K., Sloan S. E., Sandor F., Thomas W. D. Jr, Szabo G., Finberg R. W., Ambrosino D. M., Babcock G. J. 2009; Identification and characterization of broadly neutralizing human monoclonal antibodies directed against the E2 envelope glycoprotein of hepatitis C virus. J Virol 83:12473–12482 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Brown R. J. P., Juttla V. S., Tarr A. W., Finnis R., Irving W. L., Hemsley S., Flower D. R., Borrow P., Ball J. K. 2005; Evolutionary dynamics of hepatitis C virus envelope genes during chronic infection. J Gen Virol 86:1931–1942 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Brown R. J. P., Tarr A. W., McClure C. P., Juttla V. S., Tagiuri N., Irving W. L., Ball J. K. 2007; Cross-genotype characterization of genetic diversity and molecular adaptation in hepatitis C virus envelope glycoprotein genes. J Gen Virol 88:458–469 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Burlone M. E., Budkowska A. 2009; Hepatitis C virus cell entry: role of lipoproteins and cellular receptors. J Gen Virol 90:1055–1070 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Catanese M. T., Ansuini H., Graziani R., Huby T., Moreau M., Ball J. K., Paonessa G., Rice C. M., Cortese R. other authors 2010; Role of scavenger receptor class B type I in hepatitis C virus entry: kinetics and molecular determinants. J Virol 84:34–43 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Choo Q. L., Kuo G., Ralston R., Weiner A., Chien D., Van Nest G., Han J., Berger K., Thudium K. other authors 1994; Vaccination of chimpanzees against infection by the hepatitis C virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91:1294–1298 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Chung A., Rollman E., Johansson S., Kent S. J., Stratov I. 2008; The utility of ADCC responses in HIV infection. Curr HIV Res 6:515–519 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Clayton R. F., Owsianka A., Aitken J., Graham S., Bhella D., Patel A. H. 2002; Analysis of antigenicity and topology of E2 glycoprotein present on recombinant hepatitis C virus-like particles. J Virol 76:7672–7682 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Cocquerel L., Meunier J. C., Pillez A., Wychowski C., Dubuisson J. 1998; A retention signal necessary and sufficient for endoplasmic reticulum localization maps to the transmembrane domain of hepatitis C virus glycoprotein E2. J Virol 72:2183–2191[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Crowther J. R., Farias S., Carpenter W. C., Samuel A. R. 1993; Identification of a fifth neutralizable site on type O foot-and-mouth disease virus following characterization of single and quintuple monoclonal antibody escape mutants. J Gen Virol 74:1547–1553 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Davis G. L., Nelson D. R., Terrault N., Pruett T. L., Schiano T. D., Fletcher C. V., Sapan C. V., Riser L. N., Li Y. other authors 2005; A randomized, open-label study to evaluate the safety and pharmacokinetics of human hepatitis C immune globulin (Civacir) in liver transplant recipients. Liver Transpl 11:941–949 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Dhillon S., Witteveldt J., Gatherer D., Owsianka A. M., Zeisel M. B., Zahid M. N., Rychłowska M., Foung S. K., Baumert T. F. other authors 2010; Mutations within a conserved region of the hepatitis C virus E2 glycoprotein that influence virus-receptor interactions and sensitivity to neutralizing antibodies. J Virol 84:5494–5507 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Dorner M., Horwitz J. A., Robbins J. B., Barry W. T., Feng Q., Mu K., Jones C. T., Schoggins J. W., Catanese M. T. other authors 2011; A genetically humanized mouse model for hepatitis C virus infection. Nature 474:208–211 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Dowd K. A., Netski D. M., Wang X. H., Cox A. L., Ray S. C. 2009; Selection pressure from neutralizing antibodies drives sequence evolution during acute infection with hepatitis C virus. Gastroenterology 136:2377–2386 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Dreux M., Pietschmann T., Granier C., Voisset C., Ricard-Blum S., Mangeot P.-E., Keck Z., Foung S., Vu-Dac N. other authors 2006; High density lipoprotein inhibits hepatitis C virus-neutralising antibodies by stimulating cell entry via activation of the scavenger receptor BI. J Biol Chem 281:18285–18295 [View Article]
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Dreux M., Boson B., Ricard-Blum S., Molle J., Lavillette D., Bartosch B., Pécheur E.-I., Cosset F. L. 2007; The exchangeable apolipoprotein ApoC-I promotes membrane fusion of hepatitis C virus. J Biol Chem 282:32357–32369 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Drummer H. E., Boo I., Maerz A. L., Poumbourios P. 2006; A conserved Gly436-Trp-Leu-Ala-Gly-Leu-Phe-Tyr motif in hepatitis C virus glycoprotein E2 is a determinant of CD81 binding and viral entry. J Virol 80:7844–7853 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Dubuisson J., Rice C. M. 1996; Hepatitis C virus glycoprotein folding: disulfide bond formation and association with calnexin. J Virol 70:778–786[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Dubuisson J., Hsu H. H., Cheung R. C., Greenberg H. B., Russell D. G., Rice C. M. 1994; Formation and intracellular localization of hepatitis C virus envelope glycoprotein complexes expressed by recombinant vaccinia and Sindbis viruses. J Virol 68:6147–6160[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Ennishi D., Terui Y., Yokoyama M., Mishima Y., Takahashi S., Takeuchi K., Okamoto H., Tanimoto M., Hatake K. 2008; Monitoring serum hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA in patients with HCV-infected CD20-positive B-cell lymphoma undergoing rituximab combination chemotherapy. Am J Hematol 83:59–62 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Evans M. J., von Hahn T., Tscherne D. M., Syder A. J., Panis M., Wölk B., Hatziioannou T., McKeating J. A., Bieniasz P. D., Rice C. M. 2007; Claudin-1 is a hepatitis C virus co-receptor required for a late step in entry. Nature 446:801–805 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Fafi-Kremer S., Fofana I., Soulier E., Carolla P., Meuleman P., Leroux-Roels G., Patel A. H., Cosset F. L., Pessaux P. other authors 2010; Viral entry and escape from antibody-mediated neutralization influence hepatitis C virus reinfection in liver transplantation. J Exp Med 207:2019–2031 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Falkowska E., Kajumo F., Garcia E., Reinus J., Dragic T. 2007; Hepatitis C virus envelope glycoprotein E2 glycans modulate entry, CD81 binding, and neutralization. J Virol 81:8072–8079 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Farci P., Alter H. J., Wong D. C., Miller R. H., Govindarajan S., Engle R., Shapiro M., Purcell R. H. 1994; Prevention of hepatitis C virus infection in chimpanzees after antibody-mediated in vitro neutralization. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91:7792–7796 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Farci P., Shimoda A., Wong D., Cabezon T., DeGioannis D., Strazzera A., Shimizu Y., Shapiro M., Alter H. J., Purcell R. H. 1996; Prevention of hepatitis C virus infection in chimpanzees by hyperimmune serum against the hypervariable region 1 of the envelope 2 protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 93:15394–15399 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Farci P., Shimoda A., Coiana A., Diaz G., Peddis G., Melpolder J. C., Strazzera A., Chien D. Y., Munoz S. J. other authors 2000; The outcome of acute hepatitis C predicted by the evolution of the viral quasispecies. Science 288:339–344 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Féray C., Gigou M., Samuel D., Ducot B., Maisonneuve P., Reynès M., Bismuth A., Bismuth H. 1998; Incidence of hepatitis C in patients receiving different preparations of hepatitis B immunoglobulins after liver transplantation. Ann Intern Med 128:810–816[PubMed] [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Flint M., Maidens C., Loomis-Price L. D., Shotton C., Dubuisson J., Monk P., Higginbottom A., Levy S., McKeating J. A. 1999; Characterization of hepatitis C virus E2 glycoprotein interaction with a putative cellular receptor, CD81. J Virol 73:6235–6244[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Flint M., Logvinoff C., Rice C. M., McKeating J. A. 2004; Characterization of infectious retroviral pseudotype particles bearing hepatitis C virus glycoproteins. J Virol 78:6875–6882 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Fofana I., Krieger S. E., Grunert F., Glauben S., Xiao F., Fafi-Kremer S., Soulier E., Royer C., Thumann C. other authors 2010; Monoclonal anti-claudin 1 antibodies prevent hepatitis C virus infection of primary human hepatocytes. Gastroenterology 139:953–964.e4 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Frey S. E., Houghton M., Coates S., Abrignani S., Chien D., Rosa D., Pileri P., Ray R., Di Bisceglie A. M. other authors 2010; Safety and immunogenicity of HCV E1E2 vaccine adjuvanted with MF59 administered to healthy adults. Vaccine 28:6367–6373 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Gal-Tanamy M., Keck Z.-Y., Yi M., McKeating J. A., Patel A. H., Foung S. K. H., Lemon S. M. 2008; In vitro selection of a neutralization-resistant hepatitis C virus escape mutant. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105:19450–19455 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Garrone P., Fluckiger A.-C., Mangeot P. E., Gauthier E., Dupeyrot-Lacas P., Mancip J., Cangialosi A., Du Chéné I., LeGrand R. other authors 2011; A prime-boost strategy using virus-like particles pseudotyped for HCV proteins triggers broadly neutralizing antibodies in macaques. Sci Transl Med 3:94ra71 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Goffard A., Callens N., Bartosch B., Wychowski C., Cosset F. L., Montpellier C., Dubuisson J. 2005; Role of N-linked glycans in the functions of hepatitis C virus envelope glycoproteins. J Virol 79:8400–8409 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Gottwein J. M., Scheel T. K. H., Jensen T. B., Lademann J. B., Prentoe J. C., Knudsen M. L., Hoegh A. M., Bukh J. 2009; Development and characterization of hepatitis C virus genotype 1-7 cell culture systems: role of CD81 and scavenger receptor class B type I and effect of antiviral drugs. Hepatology 49:364–377 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Grakoui A., Shoukry N. H., Woollard D. J., Han J. H., Hanson H. L., Ghrayeb J., Murthy K. K., Rice C. M., Walker C. M. 2003; HCV persistence and immune evasion in the absence of memory T cell help. Science 302:659–662 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Grove J., Nielsen S., Zhong J., Bassendine M. F., Drummer H. E., Balfe P., McKeating J. A. 2008; Identification of a residue in hepatitis C virus E2 glycoprotein that determines scavenger receptor BI and CD81 receptor dependency and sensitivity to neutralizing antibodies. J Virol 82:12020–12029 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Haberstroh A., Schnober E. K., Zeisel M. B., Carolla P., Barth H., Blum H. E., Cosset F. L., Koutsoudakis G., Bartenschlager R. other authors 2008; Neutralizing host responses in hepatitis C virus infection target viral entry at postbinding steps and membrane fusion. Gastroenterology 135:1719–1728.e1 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Hadlock K. G., Lanford R. E., Perkins S., Rowe J., Yang Q., Levy S., Pileri P., Abrignani S., Foung S. K. H. 2000; Human monoclonal antibodies that inhibit binding of hepatitis C virus E2 protein to CD81 and recognize conserved conformational epitopes. J Virol 74:10407–10416 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Helle F., Goffard A., Morel V., Duverlie G., McKeating J., Keck Z.-Y., Foung S., Penin F., Dubuisson J., Voisset C. 2007; The neutralizing activity of anti-hepatitis C virus antibodies is modulated by specific glycans on the E2 envelope protein. J Virol 81:8101–8111 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Helle F., Vieyres G., Elkrief L., Popescu C.-I., Wychowski C., Descamps V., Castelain S., Roingeard P., Duverlie G., Dubuisson J. 2010; Role of N-linked glycans in the functions of hepatitis C virus envelope proteins incorporated into infectious virions. J Virol 84:11905–11915 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Heo T.-H., Chang J.-H., Lee J.-W., Foung S. K. H., Dubuisson J., Kang C.-Y. 2004; Incomplete humoral immunity against hepatitis C virus is linked with distinct recognition of putative multiple receptors by E2 envelope glycoprotein. J Immunol 173:446–455[PubMed] [CrossRef]
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Holmes E. C. 2010; The RNA virus quasispecies: fact or fiction?. J Mol Biol 400:271–273 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Houghton M., Abrignani S. 2005; Prospects for a vaccine against the hepatitis C virus. Nature 436:961–966 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Hsu M., Zhang J., Flint M., Logvinoff C., Cheng-Mayer C., Rice C. M., McKeating J. A. 2003; Hepatitis C virus glycoproteins mediate pH-dependent cell entry of pseudotyped retroviral particles. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100:7271–7276 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Humphreys I., Fleming V., Fabris P., Parker J., Schulenberg B., Brown A., Demetriou C., Gaudieri S., Pfafferott K. other authors 2009; Full-length characterization of hepatitis C virus subtype 3a reveals novel hypervariable regions under positive selection during acute infection. J Virol 83:11456–11466 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Ishii K., Rosa D., Watanabe Y., Katayama T., Harada H., Wyatt C., Kiyosawa K., Aizaki H., Matsuura Y. other authors 1998; High titers of antibodies inhibiting the binding of envelope to human cells correlate with natural resolution of chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 28:1117–1120 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Jiang X.-R., Song A., Bergelson S., Arroll T., Parekh B., May K., Chung S., Strouse R., Mire-Sluis A., Schenerman M. 2011; Advances in the assessment and control of the effector functions of therapeutic antibodies. Nat Rev Drug Discov 10:101–111 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Jo J., Lohmann V., Bartenschlager R., Thimme R. 2011; Experimental models to study the immunobiology of hepatitis C virus. J Gen Virol 92:477–493 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Johansson D. X., Voisset C., Tarr A. W., Aung M., Ball J. K., Dubuisson J., Persson M. A. 2007; Human combinatorial libraries yield rare antibodies that broadly neutralize hepatitis C virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104:16269–16274 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Karlsson Hedestam G. B., Fouchier R. A. M., Phogat S., Burton D. R., Sodroski J., Wyatt R. T. 2008; The challenges of eliciting neutralizing antibodies to HIV-1 and to influenza virus. Nat Rev Microbiol 6:143–155 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Kato N., Sekiya H., Ootsuyama Y., Nakazawa T., Hijikata M., Ohkoshi S., Shimotohno K. 1993; Humoral immune response to hypervariable region 1 of the putative envelope glycoprotein (gp70) of hepatitis C virus. J Virol 67:3923–3930[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Kato N., Ootsuyama Y., Sekiya H., Ohkoshi S., Nakazawa T., Hijikata M., Shimotohno K. 1994; Genetic drift in hypervariable region 1 of the viral genome in persistent hepatitis C virus infection. J Virol 68:4776–4784[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Kato T., Furusaka A., Miyamoto M., Date T., Yasui K., Hiramoto J., Nagayama K., Tanaka T., Wakita T. 2001; Sequence analysis of hepatitis C virus isolated from a fulminant hepatitis patient. J Med Virol 64:334–339 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Kaverin N. V., Rudneva I. A., Ilyushina N. A., Varich N. L., Lipatov A. S., Smirnov Y. A., Govorkova E. A., Gitelman A. K., Lvov D. K., Webster R. G. 2002; Structure of antigenic sites on the haemagglutinin molecule of H5 avian influenza virus and phenotypic variation of escape mutants. J Gen Virol 83:2497–2505[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Keck Z.-Y., Op De Beeck A., Hadlock K. G., Xia J., Li T.-K., Dubuisson J., Foung S. K. H. 2004a; Hepatitis C virus E2 has three immunogenic domains containing conformational epitopes with distinct properties and biological functions. J Virol 78:9224–9232 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Keck Z.-Y., Sung V. M. H., Perkins S., Rowe J., Paul S., Liang T. J., Lai M. M. C., Foung S. K. H. 2004b; Human monoclonal antibody to hepatitis C virus E1 glycoprotein that blocks virus attachment and viral infectivity. J Virol 78:7257–7263 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Keck Z.-Y., Olson O., Gal-Tanamy M., Xia J., Patel A. H., Dreux M., Cosset F. L., Lemon S. M., Foung S. K. H. 2008a; A point mutation leading to hepatitis C virus escape from neutralization by a monoclonal antibody to a conserved conformational epitope. J Virol 82:6067–6072 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Keck Z. Y., Li T. K., Xia J. M., Gal-Tanamy M., Olson O., Li S. H., Patel A. H., Ball J. K., Lemon S. M., Foung S. K. H. 2008b; Definition of a conserved immunodominant domain on hepatitis C virus E2 glycoprotein by neutralizing human monoclonal antibodies. J Virol 82:6061–6066 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Keck Z.-Y., Saha A., Xia J., Wang Y., Lau P., Krey T., Rey F. A., Foung S. K. H. 2011; Mapping a region of hepatitis C virus E2 that is responsible for escape from neutralizing antibodies and a core CD81-binding region that does not tolerate neutralization escape mutations. J Virol 85:10451–10463 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Kobayashi M., Bennett M. C., Bercot T., Singh I. R. 2006; Functional analysis of hepatitis C virus envelope proteins, using a cell-cell fusion assay. J Virol 80:1817–1825 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Krey T., d’Alayer J., Kikuti C. M., Saulnier A., Damier-Piolle L., Petitpas I., Johansson D. X., Tawar R. G., Baron B. other authors 2010; The disulfide bonds in glycoprotein E2 of hepatitis C virus reveal the tertiary organization of the molecule. PLoS Pathog 6:e1000762 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Krieger S. E., Zeisel M. B., Davis C., Thumann C., Harris H. J., Schnober E. K., Mee C., Soulier E., Royer C. other authors 2010; Inhibition of hepatitis C virus infection by anti-claudin-1 antibodies is mediated by neutralization of E2-CD81-claudin-1 associations. Hepatology 51:1144–1157 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Kwo P. Y., Lawitz E. J., McCone J., Schiff E. R., Vierling J. M., Pound D., Davis M. N., Galati J. S., Gordon S. C. other authors 2010; Efficacy of boceprevir, an NS3 protease inhibitor, in combination with peginterferon alfa-2b and ribavirin in treatment-naive patients with genotype 1 hepatitis C infection (SPRINT-1): an open-label, randomised, multicentre phase 2 trial. Lancet 376:705–716 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Lavillette D., Tarr A. W., Voisset C., Donot P., Bartosch B., Bain C., Patel A. H., Dubuisson J., Ball J. K., Cosset F. L. 2005; Characterization of host-range and cell entry properties of the major genotypes and subtypes of hepatitis C virus. Hepatology 41:265–274 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Lavillette D., Pécheur E.-I., Donot P., Fresquet J., Molle J., Corbau R., Dreux M., Penin F., Cosset F. L. 2007; Characterization of fusion determinants points to the involvement of three discrete regions of both E1 and E2 glycoproteins in the membrane fusion process of hepatitis C virus. J Virol 81:8752–8765 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Law M., Maruyama T., Lewis J., Giang E., Tarr A. W., Stamataki Z., Gastaminza P., Chisari F. V., Jones I. M. other authors 2008; Broadly neutralizing antibodies protect against hepatitis C virus quasispecies challenge. Nat Med 14:25–27 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Lemon S. M., Walker C., Alter M. J., Yi M. 2001; Hepatitis C virus. In Field’s Virology pp 1103–1107 Edited by Knipe D. M., Howley P. M. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins;
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Leroux-Roels G., Depla E., Hulstaert F., Tobback L., Dincq S., Desmet J., Desombere I., Maertens G. 2004; A candidate vaccine based on the hepatitis C E1 protein: tolerability and immunogenicity in healthy volunteers. Vaccine 22:3080–3086 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Lindenbach B. D., Meuleman P., Ploss A., Vanwolleghem T., Syder A. J., McKeating J. A., Lanford R. E., Feinstone S. M., Major M. E. other authors 2006; Cell culture-grown hepatitis C virus is infectious in vivo and can be recultured in vitro. . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103:3805–3809 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Liu S., Yang W., Shen L., Turner J. R., Coyne C. B., Wang T. 2009; Tight junction proteins claudin-1 and occludin control hepatitis C virus entry and are downregulated during infection to prevent superinfection. J Virol 83:2011–2014 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Logvinoff C., Major M. E., Oldach D., Heyward S., Talal A., Balfe P., Feinstone S. M., Alter H., Rice C. M., McKeating J. A. 2004; Neutralizing antibody response during acute and chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101:10149–10154 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Machida K., Kondo Y., Huang J. Y., Chen Y.-C., Cheng K. T.-H., Keck Z., Foung S., Dubuisson J., Sung V. M. H., Lai M. M. 2008; Hepatitis C virus (HCV)-induced immunoglobulin hypermutation reduces the affinity and neutralizing activities of antibodies against HCV envelope protein. J Virol 82:6711–6720 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Maillard P., Lavergne J.-P., Sibéril S., Faure G., Roohvand F., Petres S., Teillaud J. L., Budkowska A. 2004; Fcγ receptor-like activity of hepatitis C virus core protein. J Biol Chem 279:2430–2437 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Mancini N., Diotti R. A., Perotti M., Sautto G., Clementi N., Nitti G., Patel A. H., Ball J. K., Clementi M., Burioni R. 2009; Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection may elicit neutralising antibodies targeting epitopes conserved in all viral genotypes. PLoS ONE 4:e8254–e8260 [View Article]
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Marsh R., Connor A., Gias E., Toms G. L. 2007; Increased susceptibility of human respiratory syncytial virus to neutralization by anti-fusion protein antibodies on adaptation to replication in cell culture. J Med Virol 79:829–837 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  95. McCaffrey K., Gouklani H., Boo I., Poumbourios P., Drummer H. E. 2011; The variable regions of hepatitis C virus glycoprotein E2 have an essential structural role in glycoprotein assembly and virion infectivity. J Gen Virol 92:112–121 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  96. McHutchison J. G., Manns M. P., Muir A. J., Terrault N. A., Jacobson I. M., Afdhal N. H., Heathcote E. J., Zeuzem S., Reesink H. W. other authors 2010; Telaprevir for previously treated chronic HCV infection. N Engl J Med 362:1292–1303 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Mercer D. F., Schiller D. E., Elliott J. F., Douglas D. N., Hao C., Rinfret A., Addison W. R., Fischer K. P., Churchill T. A. et al. 2001; Hepatitis C virus replication in mice with chimeric human livers. Nat Med 7:927–933 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Meuleman P., Hesselgesser J., Paulson M., Vanwolleghem T., Desombere I., Reiser H., Leroux-Roels G. 2008; Anti-CD81 antibodies can prevent a hepatitis C virus infection in vivo. . Hepatology 48:1761–1768 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Meunier J. C., Engle R. E., Faulk K., Zhao M., Bartosch B., Alter H., Emerson S. U., Cosset F. L., Purcell R. H., Bukh J. 2005; Evidence for cross-genotype neutralization of hepatitis C virus pseudo-particles and enhancement of infectivity by apolipoprotein C1. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102:4560–4565 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Meunier J. C., Russell R. S., Goossens V., Priem S., Walter H., Depla E., Union A., Faulk K. N., Bukh J. other authors 2008; Isolation and characterization of broadly neutralizing human monoclonal antibodies to the e1 glycoprotein of hepatitis C virus. J Virol 82:966–973 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Mo H., Stamatatos L., Ip J. E., Barbas C. F., Parren P. W. H. I., Burton D. R., Moore J. P., Ho D. D. 1997; Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 mutants that escape neutralization by human monoclonal antibody IgG1b12.off. J Virol 71:6869–6874[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Molina S., Castet V., Pichard-Garcia L., Wychowski C., Meurs E., Pascussi J. M., Sureau C., Fabre J. M., Sacunha A. other authors 2008; Serum-derived hepatitis C virus infection of primary human hepatocytes is tetraspanin CD81 dependent. J Virol 82:569–574 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Mothes W., Sherer N. M., Jin J., Zhong P. 2010; Virus cell-to-cell transmission. J Virol 84:8360–8368 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Nattermann J., Schneiders A. M., Leifeld L., Langhans B., Schulz M., Inchauspé G., Matz B., Brackmann H. H., Houghton M., Sauerbruch T. 2005; Serum antibodies against the hepatitis C virus E2 protein mediate antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). J Hepatol 42:499–504 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Nevens F., Roskams T., Van Vlierberghe H., Horsmans Y., Sprengers D., Elewaut A., Desmet V., Leroux-Roels G., Quinaux E. other authors 2003; A pilot study of therapeutic vaccination with envelope protein E1 in 35 patients with chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 38:1289–1296 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Op De Beeck A., Dubuisson J. 2003; Topology of hepatitis C virus envelope glycoproteins. Rev Med Virol 13:233–241 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Op De Beeck A., Cocquerel L., Dubuisson J. 2001; Biogenesis of hepatitis C virus envelope glycoproteins. J Gen Virol 82:2589–2595[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Osburn W. O., Fisher B. E., Dowd K. A., Urban G., Liu L., Ray S. C., Thomas D. L., Cox A. L. 2010; Spontaneous control of primary hepatitis C virus infection and immunity against persistent reinfection. Gastroenterology 138:315–324 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Owsianka A., Clayton R. F., Loomis-Price L. D., McKeating J. A., Patel A. H. 2001; Functional analysis of hepatitis C virus E2 glycoproteins and virus-like particles reveals structural dissimilarities between different forms of E2. J Gen Virol 82:1877–1883[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Owsianka A., Tarr A. W., Juttla V. S., Lavillette D., Bartosch B., Cosset F. L., Ball J. K., Patel A. H. 2005; Monoclonal antibody AP33 defines a broadly neutralizing epitope on the hepatitis C virus E2 envelope glycoprotein. J Virol 79:11095–11104 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Owsianka A. M., Timms J. M., Tarr A. W., Brown R. J. P., Hickling T. P., Szwejk A., Bienkowska-Szewczyk K., Thomson B. J., Patel A. H., Ball J. K. 2006; Identification of conserved residues in the E2 envelope glycoprotein of the hepatitis C virus that are critical for CD81 binding. J Virol 80:8695–8704 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Owsianka A. M., Tarr A. W., Keck Z.-Y., Li T.-K., Witteveldt J., Adair R., Foung S. K. H., Ball J. K., Patel A. H. 2008; Broadly neutralizing human monoclonal antibodies to the hepatitis C virus E2 glycoprotein. J Gen Virol 89:653–659 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Perotti M., Mancini N., Diotti R. A., Tarr A. W., Ball J. K., Owsianka A., Adair R., Patel A. H., Clementi M., Burioni R. 2008; Identification of a broadly cross-reacting and neutralizing human monoclonal antibody directed against the hepatitis C virus E2 protein. J Virol 82:1047–1052 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Pestka J. M., Zeisel M. B., Bläser E., Schürmann P., Bartosch B., Cosset F.-L., Patel A. H., Meisel H., Baumert J. other authors 2007; Rapid induction of virus-neutralizing antibodies and viral clearance in a single-source outbreak of hepatitis C. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104:6025–6030 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Pietschmann T., Kaul A., Koutsoudakis G., Shavinskaya A., Kallis S., Steinmann E., Abid K., Negro F., Dreux M. other authors 2006; Construction and characterization of infectious intragenotypic and intergenotypic hepatitis C virus chimeras. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103:7408–7413 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Pileri P., Uematsu Y., Campagnoli S., Galli G., Falugi F., Petracca R., Weiner A. J., Houghton M., Rosa D. other authors 1998; Binding of hepatitis C virus to CD81. Science 282:938–941 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Ping L.-H., Lemon S. M. 1992; Antigenic structure of human hepatitis A virus defined by analysis of escape mutants selected against murine monoclonal antibodies. J Virol 66:2208–2216[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Prentoe J., Jensen T. B., Meuleman P., Serre S. B. N., Scheel T. K. H., Leroux-Roels G., Gottwein J. M., Bukh J. 2011; Hypervariable region 1 differentially impacts viability of hepatitis C virus strains of genotypes 1 to 6 and impairs virus neutralization. J Virol 85:2224–2234 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Pugach P., Kuhmann S. E., Taylor J., Marozsan A. J., Snyder A., Ketas T., Wolinsky S. M., Korber B. T., Moore J. P. 2004; The prolonged culture of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in primary lymphocytes increases its sensitivity to neutralization by soluble CD4. Virology 321:8–22 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Ray S. C., Wang Y.-M., Laeyendecker O., Ticehurst J. R., Villano S. A., Thomas D. L. 1999; Acute hepatitis C virus structural gene sequences as predictors of persistent viremia: hypervariable region 1 as a decoy. J Virol 73:2938–2946[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Razvi S., Schneider L., Jonas M. M., Cunningham-Rundles C. 2001; Outcome of intravenous immunoglobulin-transmitted hepatitis C virus infection in primary immunodeficiency. Clin Immunol 101:284–288 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Roben P., Moore J. P., Thali M., Sodroski J., Barbas C. F. III, Burton D. R. 1994; Recognition properties of a panel of human recombinant Fab fragments to the CD4 binding site of gp120 that show differing abilities to neutralize human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol 68:4821–4828[PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Rosa D., Campagnoli S., Moretto C., Guenzi E., Cousens L., Chin M., Dong C., Weiner A. J., Lau J. Y. N. other authors 1996; A quantitative test to estimate neutralizing antibodies to the hepatitis C virus: cytofluorimetric assessment of envelope glycoprotein 2 binding to target cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 93:1759–1763 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Sabo M. C., Luca V. C., Prentoe J., Hopcraft S. E., Blight K. J., Yi M., Lemon S. M., Ball J. K., Bukh J. other authors 2011; Neutralizing monoclonal antibodies against hepatitis C virus E2 protein bind discontinuous epitopes and inhibit infection at a postattachment step. J Virol 85:7005–7019 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Santantonio T., Wiegand J., Tilman Gerlach J. T. 2008; Acute hepatitis C: current status and remaining challenges. J Hepatol 49:625–633 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Sattentau Q. 2008; Avoiding the void: cell-to-cell spread of human viruses. Nat Rev Microbiol 6:815–826 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Scarselli E., Ansuini H., Cerino R., Roccasecca R. M., Acali S., Filocamo G., Traboni C., Nicosia A., Cortese R., Vitelli A. 2002; The human scavenger receptor class B type I is a novel candidate receptor for the hepatitis C virus. EMBO J 21:5017–5025 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Schiano T. D., Charlton M., Younossi Z., Galun E., Pruett T., Tur-Kaspa R., Eren R., Dagan S., Graham N. other authors 2006; Monoclonal antibody HCV-AbXTL68 in patients undergoing liver transplantation for HCV: results of a phase 2 randomized study. Liver Transpl 12:1381–1389 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Shimizu Y. K., Igarashi H., Kiyohara T., Cabezon T., Farci P., Purcell R. H., Yoshikura H. 1996; A hyperimmune serum against a synthetic peptide corresponding to the hypervariable region 1 of hepatitis C virus can prevent viral infection in cell cultures. Virology 223:409–412 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Shoukry N. H., Grakoui A., Houghton M., Chien D. Y., Ghrayeb J., Reimann K. A., Walker C. M. 2003; Memory CD8+ T cells are required for protection from persistent hepatitis C virus infection. J Exp Med 197:1645–1655 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Simmonds P. 2004; Genetic diversity and evolution of hepatitis C virus – 15 years on. J Gen Virol 85:3173–3188 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Sui J., Hwang W. C., Perez S., Wei G., Aird D., Chen L.-M., Santelli E., Stec B., Cadwell G. other authors 2009; Structural and functional bases for broad-spectrum neutralization of avian and human influenza A viruses. Nat Struct Mol Biol 16:265–273 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Tarr A. W., Owsianka A. M., Timms J. M., McClure C. P., Brown R. J. P., Hickling T. P., Pietschmann T., Bartenschlager R., Patel A. H., Ball J. K. 2006; Characterization of the hepatitis C virus E2 epitope defined by the broadly neutralizing monoclonal antibody AP33. Hepatology 43:592–601 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Tarr A. W., Owsianka A. M., Jayaraj D., Brown R. J. P., Hickling T. P., Irving W. L., Patel A. H., Ball J. K. 2007; Determination of the human antibody response to the epitope defined by the hepatitis C virus-neutralizing monoclonal antibody AP33. J Gen Virol 88:2991–3001 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Tarr A. W., Urbanowicz R. A., Hamed M. R., Albecka A., McClure C. P., Brown R. J. P., Irving W. L., Dubuisson J., Ball J. K. 2011; Hepatitis C patient-derived glycoproteins exhibit marked differences in susceptibility to serum neutralizing antibodies: genetic subtype defines antigenic but not neutralization serotype. J Virol 85:4246–4257 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Thimme R., Neumann-Haefelin C., Boettler T., Blum H. E. 2008; Adaptive immune responses to hepatitis C virus: from viral immunobiology to a vaccine. Biol Chem 389:457–467 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Timpe J. M., Stamataki Z., Jennings A., Hu K., Farquhar M. J., Harris H. J., Schwarz A., Desombere I., Roels G. L. other authors 2008; Hepatitis C virus cell-cell transmission in hepatoma cells in the presence of neutralizing antibodies. Hepatology 47:17–24 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Vanwolleghem T., Bukh J., Meuleman P., Desombere I., Meunier J. C., Alter H., Purcell R. H., Leroux-Roels G. 2008; Polyclonal immunoglobulins from a chronic hepatitis C virus patient protect human liver-chimeric mice from infection with a homologous hepatitis C virus strain. Hepatology 47:1846–1855 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Verstrepen B. E., Depla E., Rollier C. S., Mares G., Drexhage J. A. R., Priem S., Verschoor E. J., Koopman G., Granier C. other authors 2011; Clearance of genotype 1b hepatitis C virus in chimpanzees in the presence of vaccine-induced E1-neutralizing antibodies. J Infect Dis 204:837–844 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Vieyres G., Thomas X., Descamps V., Duverlie G., Patel A. H., Dubuisson J. 2010; Characterization of the envelope glycoproteins associated with infectious hepatitis C virus. J Virol 84:10159–10168 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Vieyres G., Dubuisson J., Patel A. H. 2011; Characterization of antibody-mediated neutralization directed against the hypervariable region 1 of hepatitis C virus E2 glycoprotein. J Gen Virol 92:494–506 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Voisset C., Callens N., Blanchard E., Op De Beeck A., Dubuisson J., Vu-Dac N. 2005; High density lipoproteins facilitate hepatitis C virus entry through the scavenger receptor class B type I. J Biol Chem 280:7793–7799 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  143. von Hahn T., Yoon J. C., Alter H., Rice C. M., Rehermann B., Balfe P., McKeating J. A. 2007; Hepatitis C virus continuously escapes from neutralizing antibody and T-cell responses during chronic infection in vivo . Gastroenterology 132:667–678 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  144. Wakita T., Pietschmann T., Kato T., Date T., Miyamoto M., Zhao Z., Murthy K., Habermann A., Kräusslich H.-G. other authors 2005; Production of infectious hepatitis C virus in tissue culture from a cloned viral genome. Nat Med 11:791–796 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  145. Wei X., Decker J. M., Wang S., Hui H., Kappes J. C., Wu X., Salazar-Gonzalez J. F., Salazar M. G., Kilby J. M. other authors 2003; Antibody neutralization and escape by HIV-1. Nature 422:307–312 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  146. Weiner A. J., Geysen H. M., Christopherson C., Hall J. E., Mason T. J., Saracco G., Bonino F., Crawford K., Marion C. D. other authors 1992; Evidence for immune selection of hepatitis C virus (HCV) putative envelope glycoprotein variants: potential role in chronic HCV infections. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89:3468–3472 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  147. Witteveldt J., Evans M. J., Bitzegeio J., Koutsoudakis G., Owsianka A. M., Angus A. G. N., Keck Z.-Y., Foung S. K. H., Pietschmann T. other authors 2009; CD81 is dispensable for hepatitis C virus cell-to-cell transmission in hepatoma cells. J Gen Virol 90:48–58 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  148. Yu M.-Y. W., Bartosch B., Zhang P., Guo Z.-P., Renzi P. M., Shen L.-M., Granier C., Feinstone S. M., Cosset F. L., Purcell R. H. 2004; Neutralizing antibodies to hepatitis C virus (HCV) in immune globulins derived from anti-HCV-positive plasma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101:7705–7710 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  149. Zhang P., Wu C. G., Mihalik K., Virata-Theimer M. L., Yu M.-y. W., Alter H. J., Feinstone S. M. 2007; Hepatitis C virus epitope-specific neutralizing antibodies in Igs prepared from human plasma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104:8449–8454 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
  150. Zhang P., Zhong L., Struble E. B., Watanabe H., Kachko A., Mihalik K., Virata-Theimer M. L., Alter H. J., Feinstone S., Major M. 2009; Depletion of interfering antibodies in chronic hepatitis C patients and vaccinated chimpanzees reveals broad cross-genotype neutralizing activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106:7537–7541 [View Article][PubMed]
    [Google Scholar]
http://instance.metastore.ingenta.com/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/vir.0.035956-0
Loading
/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/vir.0.035956-0
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Supplements

Supplementary material 1

PDF
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error